The US Model of Journalism and Latin American Watchdog - Essay Example

U.S. Model of Journalism and Latin American Watchdog Western-based journalism practice, apparently the dominant model, can sometimes be the prescribed model in assisting countries undergoing democratic development. The same may be said of Latin American nations who adopted the U.S. or Western model of journalism in overthrowing a repressive regime at the risk of limiting the path in their search for own home-grown practice of reportage. This paper then first tries to trace the reasons why the Western model almost became the default practice among different open countries and then a comparison of the Western to Latin American journalism practice. Journalism's Western Origin, where derive To understand the concept of western journalism model, it is said one must confront issues of definition and interpretation immediately, and that diversity must be taken into account (Hodgon, et. al 2001). By this end, some experts argue that it is best to postpone any attempt to define it until one has inquired into its history. As a western phenomenon, journalism must not be considered as timeless thing that is wanting of change and variety. Like all the other aspects of the realm of human experience, journalism has a history; therefore, one’s understanding of its growth must be sensitive to those changes. Relative to this discussion are the views of revolutionists Max Weber and Friedrich Nietzsche during their time. Weber (1864–1920) said, "Definition can be attempted, if at all, only at the conclusion of the study." Meanwhile, Nietzsche (1844–1900) held that "only that which has no history can be defined.” To understand then journalism, we look to its history. Journalism's origin can be traced from the old phenomenon of early Greek historians, making an impression of journalism's prominent role in the early western civilization. Windschuttle (1999) noted the start of journalism as a detached form of reporting of reality in these era. The idea of detaching oneself from his own culture and becoming a critic of one's own practice is unmistakably a western sensibility and considered by many as one of the western culture's great strengths. Spooling from this same thread, Hartley, meanwhile argued that journalism may be looked at as product of modernity, of European and euro sourced societies since the last three centuries. This is so since both colonialism and imperial expansion are promoting notions of freedom, progress and thereby associated with the erosion of traditional knowledge. In turn, such were replaced by the virtual forming of communities linked by their media (Hartley, 1996, quoted in Windschuttle, 1999). Other studies, however, point to journalism's origin to the Enlightenment era where democracy is one of the primordial values being promoted. The practice of journalism during this period it was said have, in effect, help increase the proliferation of journalism studies, training and practice with democracy as the main value being promoted (Josephi, 2005; Tihiwai-Smith, 2003; Jacobson, 1993). The concept of a liberal press originating from Enlightenment was also mentioned by Doody, who illustrates that there is an evident connection of the western ideal of freedom and accepted function as watchdog in western democratic societies (2004). The spread and imitation of Western-based journalism practice also extends to the communist Soviet region, which then became a tool in assisting the Soviet block on its way to democracy following the collapse of repressive regimes. The help from Western countries came in the form of training, advice and material to assist the Soviet region in its need to build independent news media outlets, which eventually sets the stage for a Western-based journalism practice here (Hamilton 1999; Papoutsaki, 2004). Some nation who imitated and applied the universalistic, liberal western news model did not adopted the critical and active role of media. Although representing democratic values, the adopted western sensibilities evolved into taking a sterile adversarial role whereby the press became the state's enemy. Hamilton (1999) argues that the western values when adopted by countries in democratic transition can also be supportive of the government. Meanwhile, the introduction of the penny press during the first half of the 19th Century helped revolutionize the American press, which Michael Schudson (1978) argues eventually led to the introduction of objectivity as the key tenet of modern journalism. The inevitability of adopting objectivity as a key word of American journalism was aimed at introducing a press that is devoid of political and ideological associations to avoid limiting itself from reaching out more potential readers. This in effect showed us that the rise of modern American journalism was not instantly the result of some lofty ideals to guard democracy or what the American people need, but what was dictated by personal ambition of its entrepreneurs and what local opportunities seemed to beckon. Researchers who wrote that the American press was not inherently an independent calling as one path within the political world of the mid-19th Century. Where this began can be traced from the media's business model as advertising-supported from 1830s on, in addition to its being a promotional tool of community and urban development. The politicization of the American only increased following the end of the American revolution. It is during these period only when political factions and parties came to subsidize or sponsor many leading newspapers in the United States. What this indicates then is that one model does not fit all situations. Some experts who are conducting training in non-western nations realized that issues of journalistic freedom should be looked at within the spectrum of local societies. Nevertheless, what remains is that journalism as it is practiced today internationally remains a product of the western world. American and Latin American Journalism Compared Since the influential book, Four Theories of the Press, other theorists have followed and referred to the journalism practice in the Great Britain, the United States and some of the British territories as that of “Anglo-American Journalism.” As what most books and studies would point out that the Latin American media have been found emulating the US watchdog press practice, we will study and compare the two differing practice in order to shed light on their distinctions later on. Political Side. The US tradition is generally independent from other powers, exercising control within its own domain as the fourth estate or watchdog of society. While the Latin American press practices the western sensibilities, its own independent nature was blocked by the political regime that gripped the countries in South America. In fact, the condition for an independent journalism was only enjoyed by South American nations when they entered the process of building democracy and the simultaneous emergency of a form of capitalism given berth by globalization, the same factors that helped created professional, objective journalism in the North America. In Latin American countries formerly faced with the proliferation of repressive authoritarians, frequent coup d'etat, its independent nature was absent because the press was by and large muzzled. From the point of view of Rosenthal Alves (2001), the press had played some very big role in the democratization of Latin America. During the periods of political upheavals in Latin America, Waisbord noticed that “watchdog reporting was relegated to marginal, non-mainstream publications, and to underground, clandestine outlets during dictatorial periods” (Waisbord, 2000). Waisbord pointed out the transformation over the past decades that Latin America has enjoyed unprecedented period of political stability and development of democratic regimes. The media landscape, he noted, showed signs that “a journalism who prizes the sniffing out of wrongdoing has become more visible and legitimate in the region” (Waisbord, 2000). The aggressive and independent press that emerged in Latin America set the stage for a new order in journalism: the capacity to influence the competition by introducing its own set of standards. This independence that emerged in Latin American states are not without some risks with violence against journalists as a continuing assault against the press. Alves cited a report by he Inter American Press Association that recorded the assassination of 140 Latin american journalists between 1993 and 2003 (IAPA, 2004). Assaults against the media are now perpetrated not by government or public officials but by those such as drug traffickers and other criminals. Objectivity. With the American press taking its roots in business, hence its orientation is leaning toward achieving mass circulation and lording over wide markets. When ownerships are incorporated, the American press model became identified not very strongly tied to political parties but rather with orientation leaning more towards the sale of its product. It was also widely believed that being being objective is economically-motivated. Schudson contends that there is certain devotion among American journalists to fairness and objectivity when they became more loyal to their audience than to their publishers' favored political parties. With this rule on objectivity in place, editors were able to keep lowly reporters in check (2002). As if an industrial discipline among American press, the principle of objectivity seemed a natural and progressive ideology during such period of time when science was highly-esteemed, efficiency was cherished, and elites increasingly judged partisanship a vestige of the tribal 19th Century (Schudson, 2001). The journalists whose ideals with objectivity were strong grew tired about the manipulability of information in the propaganda age. During those period, Walter Lipmann called on American journalists to upgrade the professional dignity of the working journalists and that trainings be provided that would make “the ideals of objective testimony a cardinal rule.” In effect, objectivity was established as a moral code not as an attend to fend off libel suits or a set of constraints to help editors keep tab of their people. Like the American press, the new Latin American press considered professionalizing journalism by imposing professional standards that would reinforce journalism's independence and set it apart from other professions. By professional practice, it meant that journalism had to take position, defend a cause and fight for that cause (Schudson, 2001). Meanwhile, the Latin press during the period of political instability developed a lapdog behavior. This means media companies developed an automatic alliance with whoever is in charge of the government such as the former press in Guatemala (Alves, 2001). The government in Latin America countries with military dictatorships serve as the economic power and the largest advertiser of the press. It was during these period when the press grapple from its role to be an objective watchdog because the government threatened to destroy by economic means and violence those who will resist. During the 70 years authoritarian regime in Mexico, the press also became part of the corrupt regime. Alves noted how it was considered as “normal” for journalists to receive cash payments from politicians with whom they were assigned to cover. It also became common practice to publish press releases disguised as regular news and these often amounted twice or thrice the amount paid than to advertise. Among owners of newspapers, it was also counted on as a way to ensure the profitability of their operations. Some media outlets who resisted the corrupt system like the El Norte and Siglo Veintiuno of Guatemala committed to changes by positioning their paper as a pro-democratic and pro-free market enterprise. To do so, newspapers in Latin America was modernized and modeled after the US style of a profit-oriented and politically independent establishment. In Chile, an anti-dictatorship publication, La Epoca commented that their country lacks a newspaper that exhibit the four basic characteristic that would say it is free: professional, independent, pluralist, and democratic. The Los Angeles Times correspondent William Montalbano (1987) quoted the owner of the publication as saying, “These are indispensable qualities for a different kind of newspaper. Without them La Epoca would have no reason for being.” Style and Tone. This objectivity of the American press is very much manifested in the way it use simpler and more direct language to distance the newspaper from its elite and political tendencies (Gorman and McLean, 2001). This characteristic sets apart the American model of journalism with the European style of editorializing and populating newspapers with more commentary and literary materials. It was the European style of bringing a strong opinion section that some Latin American press has adopted like Mexico's Reforma (Alves, 2002). It was understandable for a press that is adopting a bolder, critical editorial line because the goal was to open the eyes of its consumers to the reality during that time. But the Latin American papers also featured consistent investigative reporting pieces with the tone to expose the prevailing practices in their countries. Themes. While the American press enjoyed conducting reports that highlight its regard to science, efficiency and the like, the Latin American press took the more aggressive position in fighting the government and the corrupt practices in their countries during the political instability and proliferation of dictatorial rules. One example is the Panama newspaper, La Prensa who became critical of their country's military officers who were accused of human rights abuses but government was lax in meting out punishment. La Prensa was also critical of criminal syndicates such as drug traffickers who are affiliating with government officials to receive protection from legal impediments and other punishments. Another theme that received extensive coverage in the Latin American press was the fight for democracy. Like Panama's La Prensa, La Epoca of Chile had a declared goal of fighting for democracy. Fighting off censorship in their country, La Epoca received international attention when it proclaimed and explained in an editorial why a new paper was needed: “This newspaper will bet on democracy as the best system to ensure a peaceful, stable and just society for Chile.” The paper explained that the public deserved transparency, which was an indirect reference to other papers' alliance with the dictatorship. As a result of these changes, La Epoca became the first paper in Chile to separate political section from national, to have a cultural section and foreign desk instead of just obtaining wire service dispatches. Conclusion As most researches would show, the American version of journalism seems to represent the only universal model. Thus, a comparison with other countries' journalistic practice would appear more theoretical than empirical but would unravel some important characteristics that would otherwise be difficult to understand. Such was the case that occurred in doing this study comparing the U.S. model and Latin American model of journalism. Examples that were revealed by this effort include: the role of the country's government, the relevance of political aggressions, the intellectual characterization of journalism, and so on. What stands out, however, is the realization that minus the elements of a common history and a common political culture (repressive authoritarian regimes), the Latin American journalistic practice may not have evolved and determined its own structure and operative approach. Likewise, the same can be said of the American model as pointed out by some researchers that its practice emerges out of a unique history and that it has been shaped by a relationship to distinctive political institutions and a unique political culture (Schudson, 2001). In the final analysis, it bears noting the impact of the ideals of American journalism and what stands as its very best qualities, such as objectivity, professional standards, and political independence, among many others. The Latin American press, in learning and imitating some of these best qualities, on the other hand, were able to evolve on its current practice and introduce its own model, which can be said to be true for all nations whose own set of history, political background and culture are factors that help formulate one's own national model of journalism. References Alves, R. C., 2006. From Lapdog to Watchdog: The role of the press in Latin America's democratization. In H. De Burgh, ed. 2006. Making Journalists: Diverse Models, Global Issues. London: Routledge. Ch. 10. De Burgh, H. ed., 2006. Making Journalists: Diverse Models, Global Issues. London: Routledge Doody, J., 2004. The Concept of a Free Press in an Eidostatic Society. 2004 Georgge Walford International Essay Prize. [online] Available at: [Accessed 1 May 2011]. Hodgson, G., Itoh, M., & Yokokawa, N., 2001. Capitalism in Evolution Global Contentions – East and West. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Press. Josephi, B., 2005. Journalism in the Global Age: Between Normative and Empirical. Gazette, 67(6), pp. 575-590. Lippmann, W., 1920. Liberty and the News, New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Hone. Mancini, P., 2006. Is There a European Model of Journalism? In H. De Burgh, ed. 2006. Making Journalists: Diverse Models, Global Issues. London: Routledge. Ch. 4. Marx, K., 1972. The Karl Marx Library, 1, ed. Saul K. Padover. New York: McGraw Hill, pp. 245–46. Papoutsaki, E., 2006. De-westernising Research Methodologies: Alternative Approaches to Research for Higher Education Curricula in Developing Countries, Global Colloquium of the UNESO Forum on Higher Education, Research & Knowledge, Paris 29 Nov – 1 Dec 2006. Papoutsaki, E., 2007. De-colonizing Journalism Curricula: A Research & 'Development' Perspective, AMIC Conference, Singapore 24 – 27 June 2007. Schudson, M., 2006. The US Model of Journalism: Exception or Exemplar. In H. De Burgh, ed. 2006. Making Journalists: Diverse Models, Global Issues. 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