Ecotourism and Its Relationship to Sustainability - Assignment Example

Ecotourism and its relationship to sustainability Essay Question: Evaluate the meaning and nature of ‘ecotourism’ and its relationship to sustainability through a review of relevant literature. Select a case study ecotourism project and analyse the extent to which the project aspires to and achieves sustainable practices. I. Introduction Ecotourism has been a central focus of many companies especially in the hospitality and travel industry. However it is facing two criticisms due to the two factors- unfulfilled criteria of ecotourism products and their adherence to a weak or minimalist model. First, there are many tourism products which do not usually fulfill criteria of ecotourism products in the market (Fennell and Weaver, 2005). Thus, there is still a need to clarify the concept of ecotourism which can be grounded for many business organizations to forester and commit themselves for ecotourism and sustainability of the environment. Since 1980s and beyond, there has been debate on one of the enduring legacies of the sustainable development which has a greater quest for integration of the economy and the environment. A by-product of the quest is a growing interest in great potentials in formulating environmental policy based on the market as a supplement. In some cases, the traditional approach of providing standard environmental standards which can be placed as direct legal regulations (Eckersley, 1995a: 1). In the hospitality and travel industry, air travel is one of the fastest growing sectors in tourism. Some environmental impacts of this travel sector were (1) high levels of fuel consumption, (2) noise pollution, (3) air pollution, and (4) production of waste (Air Transport Action Group, 2002; Becken, 2002; Clancy, 2001; Middleton & Hawkins, 1999; Penner et al., 1999). According to the Air Transport Action Group (2002), the record of frequent use of air travel by tourists to get to and from their destination has been ever increasing. In addition, another indicator of average length of journey on a plane has been increased to double over the two decades. More over, Clancy (2001) points out that half of the total travel expenses of a tourist are contributed by the cost of air. As a result, there has been increasing demands on the environment with respect to air travel. Buckley (2001: 379) argues that there is a broader impact of transportation on the environment and it is always been ‘beyond the scope’ of sustainable tourism discussions. However (Middleton and Hawkins, 1999, 1994) insist that when looking at the overall tourism impacts on environment, there has been increasingly consideration of a traveler’s mode effects on the environmental effects. This essay searches for core concept of ecotourism. It studies how ecotourism relates to the sustainability in the concept and application. It evidences how a business organization in the travel industry made commitments to environmental sustainability and ecotourism. II. Defining the Ecotourism Since mid-1980s, the ecotourism sector with its allied concept of sustainable tourism and alternative tourism has been matured. It was seen as a prt of a response to the perceived environmental, economic and socio-cultural costs of conventional laissez-faire mass tourism (Jafari, 2001). Blamey (2001) and Fennell (1999) state that based on the past fifteen years of theoretical and practical development, the ecotourism has three core criteria, namely, (1) an emphasis on nature-based attractions, (2) learning opportunities, and (3) management practices that adhere to the principles of ecological, socio-cultural and economic sustainability. First, ecotourism is primarily nature-based because its products and attractions are always associated with cultural influences of contemporary, historic, and archeological. Second, the learning opportunities include part of the provision of formal product interpretation, and part of maintenance of conditions that facilitate informal personal interactions with the natural environment and culture. Weiier and Hamm (2001) propose that visitors should have basic understanding on targeted natural and cultural attractions. Third, ecotourism should be managed in order to result in sustainability. In ecotourism, there are two ideal types, namely (1) soft and (2) hard which were widely recognized in the literature (Weaver, 2001a, b). This two ideal types of dichotomy is significant for developing a comprehensive ecotourism model. As shown in the Figure 1, hard ecotourism consists of alternative tourism in its affiliation. They are usually observed as small groups of dedicated environmentalist FITs (free and independent travellers) who always seek mentally and physically challenging experiences. They prefer non-serviced wilderness settings. In contrast, soft ecotourism involves larger numbers of visitors congregating in sites that provide extensive services and facilities. They usually experience a superficial encounter with nature (Fennell, 2002b). The ecotourism spectrum Figure 1 Characteristics of hard and soft ecotourism as ideal types Source: Weaver (2001b) Figure 2. Modified comprehensive ecotourism model Source: Weaver (in press) Weaver (in press) suggests a comprehensive model of ecotourism which maximize the positive and minimize the negative potential impacts of elements of the soft and hard. This model, he argues that it is applicable to all types of destinations. Figure 2 shows ideal type of comprehensive ecotourism that fosters the holistic approach, aims at deep understanding, transformational outcomes in attitude and behavior, and promotes sustainability which is regarded as globally, ecologically, socio-culturally, and economically sound. The model consists of (1) specialised or multi-purpose trips, (2) long or short trips, (3) small or large groups, (4) physically challenging or passive activities, (5) few or extensive services, personal experience with the product or interpretation, and (6) FIT visitors or those accommodated by the formal travel industry. Other important reasons include (1) being inclusive, (2) the possibilities for transforming the attitudes and behavior of a large consumer segment, (3) possibilities for generating synergy between the ecotourism and conventional tourism industries. Fennell and Weaver (2005) argue that tour operators and travel agents are strongly connected to conventional mass tourism industry that may not place a high priority on environmentally sustainable management or client awareness. Therefore, it is critically important for business organizations involved in the travel industry to commit to the ecotourism and sustainability. In the literature, there are a number of reasons for businesses to voluntarily participate in the environmental initiatives (Lynes and Dredge, 2006). They include (1) to reduuce costs and increase efficiency, especially by cutting resource use and waste generation; (2) to avoid or delay regulatory action; (3) to gain a competitive advantage; (4) to enhance or reinforce a positive image in the marketplace as a ‘good corporate citizen’; (5) to comply to pressures imposed by banks, insurers, clients and suppliers who do not wish to inherit environmental liabilities; (6) to conform to pressures from community groups, environmental organizations and industry members; and (7) to encourage employee productivity through improved corporate culture and employee ‘pride’. Similarly, Miller (2001) identifies factors driving environmental responsibility among tour operators and identifies five major drivers to this effect: (1) industry structure and the level of competition that exists; (2) legal requirements; (3) market advantage and public relations benefits of ‘being green’; (4) perceived importance of cost savings over the long term balanced against short-term nature of tourism business operations; and (5) moral obligation. Fennell and Weaver (2005) argue that these factors can be used to develop a framework for the drivers for environmental activity within a company. There are also many studies that suggest that different drivers in various sectors are dependent on the nature of the decision that needs to be made. A generic series of drivers are more open to criticisms by reductionisms. With the acknowledgement of the contribution of the generic drivers specified in the literature, a clearer understanding of drivers should be developed in the airline industry. Renn (2001: 428–9) identifies four broad social subsystems that influence environmental policy-making, in the context of a broad discussion about the role of social science in policy development: (1) The market system – This factor drives the company to consider cost-benefit analysis of advantages within the marketplace while formulating environmental policy. (2) Political-institutional system – This factor drives the company to develop environmental policy to be on the political culture and system of government within which the business operates. (3) Scientific system – This factor drives the company to develop environmental policy to be based on scientific knowledge of cause and consequence. (4) Social system – This factor drives the company to develop environmental policy as a result of the sharing of knowledge about market, political and scientific systems. Figure 1 shows these four drivers which contribute to corporate environmental commitment. Renn’s (2001) discussion applies to public policy development. However, the position taken in this paper is that these four subsystems are also likely to be relevant in corporate commitment and decision-making. According to Renn (2001: 429), environmental policy development that balances social, political and market considerations and scientific knowledge is likely to be cost efficient, based on accepted scientific knowledge, acknowledging the values of stakeholders and, as a result, be socially and politically legitimised. Figure 1 Influences on environmental commitment (Adapted from Renn, 2001) III. Case Study SAS: This essay conducts examination on Scandinavian Airlines’ (SAS), and its interest in and commitment to, in order to improve its environmental management practices with a quest to understand the potential advantages and pitfalls for reducing environmental impact in this sector. According to IATA (2002), there a massive growth in air travel over the past three decades and it was projected that there will be an increase in air travel. With such ever increasing demand, the airline sector faced environmental management as a particularly pressing issue. Results: In the study of Lynes and Dredge (2006), interviews with the key focus of drivers to commitment to environmental sustainability were conducted in order to explore drivers influencing SAS environmental policy and decision-making. Information was gathered in the framework of Renn (2001). Their findings revealed that the subsystems overlap and interact one another. They do not influence independently on SAS’s environmental management. There are five primary drivers which emerged from the interviews interacting between markets, science, the social system and the political/institutional system. These primary drivers are namely (1) the financial cost-benefit of environmental management; (2) the regulatory setting; (3) the desire to be a ‘good corporate citizen’; (4) airline image; and (5) relationships with the aviation community. These primary drivers are supported by the secondary drivers as follows (Lynes and Dredge, 2006). First, the company seeks financial-cost benefit of environmental management in long-term and short-term. The SAS is highly motivated to commit the environmental management by the financial cost-benefits. From committing to the environmental management, SAS gains from saving resulted from cleaner production and lower production costs and earned money from profits. In addition, SAS management has shown interest in investing in energy and water saving techniques in order to save costs. The techniques such as improving fuel efficiency and decreasing the amount of waste going to landfill. Senior executives of SAS have realized that short- and long-terms paybacks. Efficiency and costs savings in environmental management are important motivator for SAS to commit to the environmental management program. Second, another driver which directly influences SAS’s commitment to environmental management is regulatory setting. SAS finds that regulations and standards are an essential part of environmental management. In the Scandinavian culture, regulations are commonly respected and they become embedded values in corporate culture. In a national level, SAS worked closely with the Swedish Aviation Authority, Luftfartsverket, in developing environmental management and sees the credibility in environmental performance as important relationship. SAS has developed tools and mechanisms such as environmental index, environmental report for establishing the image of the airline. Third, a good corporate citizen includes several different sub-drivers such as embodying the Scandinavian spirit and improving image of the airline. There is mixed opinion, however, of what lies behind the altruistic gesture of being a good corporate citizen. SAS felt that the environment has become an inherent part of the Scandinavian culture. One likened the environmental attitudes of Scandinavians to that of most developed countries towards wearing seatbelts in cars. Fourth, SAS acknowledged that to be a good corporate citizen the company must establish a good image. One mechanism is to produce an environmental report which SAS sees as a environmental platform. SAS established the report to show that it is important for both government and other stakeholders in the airline industry in order to combat environmental issues. Fifth, SAS finds that the company does not receive the pressure from their suppliers to engage in the environmental management. However, there was one airline company which faces the pressure from one supplier and lost the customer on the ground that the company lacked environmental data. SAS sees that the relationship between the airline, its suppliers, and clients are potentially and equally important. SAS informants indicated that they were starting to see demand from corporate clients who are trying to maintain or achieve some form of environmental certification such as ISO 14001 or the European EMAS (Eco Management Audit Scheme). List of primary drivers and subsets of primary drivers influencing on environmental commitment (1) Financial cost–benefit A. Immediate or medium-term • Eco-efficiencies such as energy and water savings • Boosted earnings from avoiding charges and taxes B. Long-term • Competitive advantage (e.g. payback from investment in green engines) • Better investor relations – environment can be a ‘selling point’ for the company (2) Regulatory setting • Standards and regulations are unquestioningly accepted • Anticipating future legislation to gain a competitive advantage • Good image lends credibility when dealing with regulatory bodies (3) Being a ‘good corporatecitizen’ • Improving image of airline with respect to other forms of transport • Wanting to have the image ‘we care’ • Responding to the increased focus society has on the environment • Embodying the ‘Scandinavian Spirit’ (4) Airline image • Positive image in the marketplace • Positive image with suppliers • Positive image strengthens credibility with regulatory bodies (5) Pressures from industry stakeholders • Corporate customers are requiring more environmental information be provided to them • Coercive pressure from government (threat of more charges and taxes; especially EU and within Scandinavia) • Relationships with unions instrumental in implementing environmental management changes V. Conclusion The study has documented the meaning of the ecotourism and its relationship to the sustainability. There are two issues that are perceived unimportant by informants. First, in the perspective of SAS, passengers are not influencing their environmental management. Second, it would be inappropriate to market themselves as “green” airline because it would be insincere. The airline could not be considered as “green” due to consumption of larger amount of fossil fuels. The most important driver was observed as ‘leadership’. In one case, the CEO of the airline vetoed the financial pragmatism of his fellow executives to purchase a new fleet of aircraft. The aircrafts were more expensive; however, they had superior environmental performance. References: Air Transport Action Group (2002) Industry as a Partner for Sustainable Development. London: Beacon. Becken, S. (2002) Analysing international tourist flows to estimate energy use associatedwith air travel. 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