Measurement of Social Capital - Essay Example

Running Head: Social Capital Social Capital Name Institution Social capital defines the consolidated resources that are created as a result of coordination and co-operation of individuals as well as groups. Social capital could easily be described as the value that is attached to social networks. It describes the feelings of responsibility and a sense of obligation that persons in social institutions have towards one another. Merchants freely exchange merchandise worth thousands in the diamond market, with complete trust that the merchant inspecting the diamonds will not replace them with replicas. This is an important form of social capital upon which the diamond business operates and without which the market would collapse. Bourdieu (1983,p.249) defines social capital as “the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance or recognition”. According to Coleman (1998, p.S98) “social capital is defined by its functions. It is not a single entity but a variety of different entities, with two elements in common: they all consist of some aspect of social structures, and they facilitate certain actions of actors” .This theory attempts to link up the positive effects that arise from social networking and combine these benefits with individual capital for the creation of power and influence. Bourdieu’s definition suggests that individuals only stand to gain by their participation in social networks, which is not the case. Social capital is the fruit that social networks stand to rip if they function effectively. The expectation that social networks will accrue benefits is the glue that keeps them together. Social capital is generated whenever social networks are formed for the purpose of achieving a collective object whose benefits may either be accrued by the community or individual. As such there must be careful consideration so that the network structure is based on institutions set so as to accrue benefits. According to Portes (1998) “social networks are not a natural given and must be constructed through investment strategies oriented to the institutionalization of group relations, usable as a reliable source of other benefits”. Social investigators however differ on the purpose and membership of social networks. Bordieu highlighted that social capital was just a means of masking the means by which the privileged and powerful people in the society continue to amass wealth and power; that social capital is just a definition of the rich and powerful in a way that masks the social distinction of wealth. Other researchers however argue that even the marginalized communities have their own social networks that constitute diverse functions and purposes and hence social capital is a concept that surpasses social class and distinction. The idea that since social capital is a result of shared interests, then it should be equally available fails to account for the inequity of efforts put in to create this resource. Persons who feel alienated from societies and social networks may fail to benefit from social capital as they are different from the majority of the close knit society. There is the tendency that such societies may fail to pay attention to the special needs of the minority. Also, Geographical and social isolations exists that limit the access to social capital. Social capital has become popular in the modern society as a result of what it stands for as well as what it suggests to stand for. It almost always fits the bill for any situation where strategic alliances produce economic benefits or super-normal performance be it economic or managerial. Measurement of social capital Research differs on the mode of measurement of social capital due to the various definitions that exist to explain what it is. Some hypothesize that social capital should be measured in terms of trust and as such lower levels of political and civic participation is an indication of declining levels of social capital. Social capital should captivate a feeling of responsibility and ownership; the absence of such is an indication of declining social capital. The number of members of a social network is also a measure of the social capital attached to it, others have argued. Social networks can be classified as either formal or informal. Formal networks are those between families, friends, kin and neighbors as their civic engagement is informal. Formal networks are those whose civic engagement is through formalized and constituted groups such as those that engage in childcare, education, charity and self help activities (Stone, 2001). Measurement of social capital within informal networks would therefore focus on child bearing and how well this task is accomplished as well as the strength of family relations. The culture that the parents inculcate into the children is a more effective means of measuring social capital as compared to the use of parent and children relationships which are way too many to be accounted for. Investment into social capital between friends and kinship takes the shape of time and money investments. Friends and next of kin who come to the rescue during times of need by either dedicating time or money can be seen as a form of social capital investment. Social participation through hosting and visiting friends, visits to public places such as café, cinema halls, parties and social clubs with friends and neighbors, as well as group activities such as visiting the gym, playing group sports, singing and acting groups can be used to measure the amount of social capital that is present in a neighborhood or community. Formal civic participation can be individual or in groups. Individual civic participation as a form of investment into social network involves participation in such activities as signing petitions, attending council or parent meetings, writing letters to newspaper and magazines in order to raise issues of concern and contacting the various government representatives such as the councilor or Member of Parliament. Social capital investment into voluntary work involves activities such as offering advice and directions to people, collecting litter and cleaning community pavements, visits to elderly and sick people and lending a hand to neighbors in repairs, moving or shopping. The regularity with which such activities occur within a community is a measure of the wealth of their social capital. The existence of formally constituted networks within a community and the number of members they have as well as the level of activity that they engage in is a measure of social capital within a community. Membership into various formalized groups such as The red cross, parent- teacher organizations, women’s groups, membership in local organizational committees and various support groups as well as the level of commitment into the welfare of such groups is a measure of social capital wealth. The willingness of members of a community to reach out for help from public institutions such as government offices and officials as well as police institutions is an indication of the level of trust that a people posses and as such an indication of the level of social capital. Reaching out for help also in such personal matters as emergency situations as well as when seeking for a job to persons in the community who might be of help also shows the level of trust and reciprocity in a community. The different forms that social capital takes can also be used to classify the different ways in which social capital can be measured. Social capital can be used to help persons in the community to get by their daily lives and researchers have coined the term bonding social capital to describe this form of social capital. Getting ahead requires the use of bridging social capital which entails the use of another social network’s resources. Linking social capital is that which when granted access to, an individual almost always rises to a position of power or personal physical wealth. Others suggest that social capital can be measured by the amount of good will and fellowship that a social networking unit posses. Social capital in communities manifests itself in low crime rates, improved access to health care facilities, higher levels of literacy and education and economic growth and sustainability. The more profound such things are in a community then the higher the amount of social capital that it possesses. A study conducted in new south Wales that aimed at measuring social capital identified that majority of the population in about 5 Australian communities put into consideration such factors as local community participation, engaging is social activity, trust and safety, connections with persons in the neighborhood, connections with families and friends, diversity tolerance, value attached to life, and associations at the workplace whenever they were considering joining various associations (Narayan & Cassidy, 2001 ). Social capital as used as a tool to fight crime and insecurity Social capital is an important driving force in the society as it can be used to solve some of the persistent issues that individuals cannot solve on their own. Collective effort can be used in cases where the resources required to solve a problem in a society cannot be raised by an individual. Human capital is also easily made accessible through social networks; persons endowed with technical knowledge that other members of the network are not familiar with can assist them with such knowledge that might be useful to the community. The smooth running of the community is thus facilitated by social networks that constitute social capital. Social capital for the purpose of smooth running of the society is indeed one among the many uses of social networks. The collaboration of different individuals and their inputs can indeed help grease out some of the issues that a community faces. Civic participation has been in existent for years and it fits the bill for the various definitions of social capital that are existent. The idea that social capital is a new idea has been rubbished by the fact that civic participation has been existent for years and has been used to tackle issues facing societies by our forefathers. It is out of the realization that government help is not always effective or as fast in solving issues that civic participation comes in handy. Insecurity, violence and crime in societies are one of the most persistent issues that communities and societies worldwide face. It transcends across social class and is rampant across all races and ethnicities and government intervention is not always as effective, a fact shown by high prevalence of crime even in highly modernized cultures. Application of social capital in crime and insecurity prevention and would facilitate governments in combating with this vice. Societies exist that have proven that it is possible to solve prevalent crime and insecurity by investing in social capital. Putnam (2001) highlighted civic participation in the north of Italy around 1000AD when crime was prevalent beyond normal levels. Peasants would not grow more grain than they would consume and were almost always robbed on their way to the market place. Investment in social capital saw neighbors group themselves into self protecting pacts that soon merged to offer protection to one another. From such small beginnings horizontal governments were formed and crime reduced to almost negligible levels. Other societies have used social capital as well to eliminate such vices following in the example of Italy. Other means of crime and violence solution are available such as use of police surveillance and prison systems, provision of economic incentives, infrastructure and public expenditure as well as well as appealing to the public to maintain high morals and values. Just like any system that attempts to establish rules and authority, lesser use of penalties and more reliance on incentives will be effective in introducing authority. As such, to engage citizens civically, there is need to rely less on coercive methods that force compliance by certain rules. Use of social capital to combat such crimes as burglary, assault whether physical or sexual, robbery and homicide attempts to solve the problem from the origin as opposed to means such as use of stricter legislation so that offenders are sentenced for longer, or laying pressure on the judiciary, as these only attempt to solve the problem by making an example off offenders. Such methods neither engage the citizens civically nor do they reduce the harm\ hurt that crime inflicts on people. Social networks based on civic engagement should encompass to reduce the vulnerability of the community to crime and violence, as well as convert would-be offenders to constructive citizens and also aim at supporting victims of crime in their recovery from trauma. This can be achieved by involving members of communities in networks, projects and committees that are meant to prevent crime and violence as well as creating a healthy environment for the members of the community to live work and have social relationships in that is free of harassment. Social networks in which children grow in today are largely ineffective and yet they are still relied upon to impact positively on children. There is need for communities to reinvest in new forms of social networks and institutions in order to reduce the levels of crime. The effectiveness of these social networks in reducing the levels of crime and violence will have them accrue benefits such as a viable and safe environment to live and work in. business investment that directly affects the economic growth in a community also requires a safe and secure neighborhood to operate in. Social capital also stands to benefit the state; the burden of paying for medical costs incurred as a result of crime as well as the deprivation of potential income tax that would come about if criminals contributed positively to the community and also the reduced costs incurred in rehabilitation institutions such as prisons and penitentiaries for criminals. Recent studies show a relation in communities between high levels of crime and low levels of social capital. People in such neighborhoods lived in fear of being victimized and there was a general lack of trust among neighbors. People were less likely to intervene whenever a child from this neighborhood was behaving badly in public and rather than try to invest in social capital, most people opted to move to safer neighborhoods. The levels of child abuse in this neighborhood were noted to be high. The blame should fall on changes in social networks such as families and schools as well as neighborhoods to the effect of reducing social capital. Coleman (1998) highlighted the plight of a family that moved away from Detroit to Jerusalem. The mother of the family highlighted that she felt a lot safer when letting her children out in the public to enjoy such public facilities as recreational parks and bus commuting services in Jerusalem as compared to Detroit. Social capital in Jerusalem dictated that adults take care of children out in the public and as such no harm will befall the children under the watchful eye of the public, something that the mother felt lacking in Detroit. This case scenario highlights the ability of social trust and responsibility that informal networks such as those that exist between families, friends and neighbors in the provision of a safe and secure neighborhood free of child abuse. The different definitions and means by which social capital is measured prove it is an important aspect in our community. However, it has certain common characteristics, irrespective of how it is measured or how it is defined; it consists of some aspect of social structures, and it facilitates certain actions of actors. Apart from being a potential tool in fighting crime, social capital has the potential to facilitate the smooth running of various business ventures as well as mobilization of resources among deprived populations for the purpose of elevating their levels of poverty as used in various communities worldwide. Contrary to the opinion of the majority of the citizens, the solution to reducing and eliminating crime is not the use of coercive means but rather the investment of social capital to mold would be offenders. Communities with more informal networks are more likely to have access to the basic human necessities such as health food clothing shelter and employment than communities which lack that close knit attribute of social networks. Societies and humans at large should learn to harness the potential that social capital possesses. It has more positive than negative effects to offer to the community. References Bourdieu, P. (1983). The forms of social capital: Handbook of theory of research for the sociology of education. New York: J. Richardson. Coleman, J. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. American journal of sociology.vol. 94 Graycar, A. (1999). Crime and social capital. Melbourne. Australian Institute of Criminology. Narayan, D. & Cassidy, M. (2001). A dimensional approach to measuring social capital: development and validation of a social capital inventory. Current sociology. vol. 49 no.2 Portes, A. (1998). Social capital: Its origins and applications in modern sociology. Annual review of sociology. Putnam, R. (2001). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American Community. New York: Simon & Schuster. Stone, W. (2001). Measuring social capital. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies. Read More