Globalization, Social Issues and Public Policy - Assignment Example

GLOBALIZATION, SOCIAL ISSUES AND PUBLIC POLICY Name Institution Date Globalization, social issues and public policy The concept of social capital Social capital is an expansive concept that entails facets like trust, reciprocatory, social networks, and civic and community engagement. Coleman (1988) defines social capital as anything that enhances collective or individual action, generated through networks of trust, social norms, relationships and reciprocity. Social capital is described by its functions. Social capital isn’t a sole entity but a wide range of diverse entities, with two major elements; these entities comprise of numerous elements of social structures and they enhance particular actions of actors whether corporate actors or persons within these structures. Similar to other types of capital, social capital is useful and it facilitates achievement of particular ends that won’t be possible to achieve in its absence. Similar to human capital and physical capital social capital isn’t entirely fungible but might be precise to particular activities. A particular type of social capital that is helpful in enhancing particular actions might be harmful or useless to some people. Social capital occurs as a result of shifts in relations amongst people that enhance action (Coleman, 1988). According to World Bank, (1999), social capital is the relationships, norms and institutions that shape the quantity and quality of the social interactions of a society. Social capital isn’t merely a sum of institutions that support a community, but it is a goal that joins them together. Increasing proof demonstrate that social solidity is vital for the economic prosperity and sustainable developments of societies. A narrow outlook of social capital regards is as a collection of horizontal associations amid people, comprising of associated norms and social networks that have an influence on the well being and productivity of a community. A broader view of social capital considers both the negative and positive aspects through including both horizontal and vertical associations amid individuals, and entails behavior among and within organizations, like firms. The broader view identifies that horizontal ties are required to offer societies a sense of common purpose and identity and also emphasizes that without linking ties that surpass several social divides such as ethnicity, socio-economic status and religion, horizontal ties may be used as a basis for search of narrow interests and can also be may dynamically prevent access to material resources and information that would otherwise greatly assisted the community such as tips on job vacancies and access to credit. The widest and highly encompassing outlook of social capital entails the political and social environment that forms social structure and facilitates development of norms. This scrutiny extends the significance of social capital to most formalized structures and institutional relationships , such as political regime, government , court system, rule of law and political and civil liberties. This view accounts for vices and virtues of social capital as well as the significance forming ties across and within communities and also identifies that the capability of several social groups to operate in their interest depends vitally upon the support that they get from the private sector and the state. Likewise, the state depends upon extensive popular support and social stability. This means that social and economic development succeeds when agents of the civil society, corporate sector and state develop forums in and via which they are able to identify and pursue universal goals (World Bank, 1999). According to Cote and Healy (2001) OECD defines social capital as networks along with shared values, understandings and norms that enhance cooperation among or within groups. Informal and formal networks are vital to conceptualization of social capital. Networks are personal relationships accumulated when individuals interact with one another in workplaces, families, local associations, neighborhood and a variety of formal and informal meeting places. Shared values, understandings and norms relate to subjective attitudes and disposition of groups and individuals, along with rules and sanctions regulating behavior, which are broadly shared. The functions of sanctions in supporting norms are important because it enables individuals and groups to behavior in a socially acceptable way. Putman (1995) views social capital are norms, trust and networks that enhance participants to act jointly more efficiently to pursue common goals. It includes customs and networks that shape the quantity and quality of the social interaction of a society. While physical capital defines physical objects and human capital defines properties of persons, social capital is the connections amid individuals and the norms and social networks of trustworthiness and reciprocity that emerge from them. In this regard social capital is strongly connected to civic virtue but the key disparity is that social capital emphasizes that civic virtue is highly influential when ingrained within a sense of set-up of mutual social relations. Woolcock (2001) argues that although social capital is difficult to define, it can be conceptualized as social glue that joins individuals together and offers them a sense of belonging in a widely uncertain and fragmented world. It is developed in people’s relationships, via doing things for each other and in trust that they develop in each other. It assists in bonding splintered social life, in bridging of societies to contacts and places beyond their instant environment and linking of individuals to formal agencies and structures that they might require to assistance with opportunities for education or employment. Bonding social capital is distinguished by strong bonds amid group member and is useful in establishing a sense of security and shared identity. It designates ties amid individuals in identical situations, such as close friends, neighbors and immediate family. Bridging social capital is a resource that assists individuals to establish relations with a broader, more diverse set of individuals than those in immediate family, school or workplace environment, for instance amid employers and students or community workers and teachers. It is significant in assisting career advancement and employment. It entails more far-off ties of similar persons, like workmates and loose friendships. Linking social capital facilitates connections amid individuals across diversities in status. It reaches out to dissimilar individuals in diverse circumstances, like people who are completely outside the community thus enhancing members to exploit a variety of resources than they are obtainable in the society (Woolcock, 20001). The social network ties that an individual or a group can depend on for support and resources comprise their social capital. The social capital is a significant ingredient in well being and participation of groups and individuals in the political, economic and social life of society. Ensuring that individuals have the chance to fully take part in society is a core concern of social policy. Several government policies in developed nations have stresses the attainment of human capital and its integration into labor market as a scheme of crating such an opportunity. Public policy planners have shifted their thinking on physical and financial assets in form of housing and saving as other significant resources of promoting social participation and inclusion. Briggs (2004) notes that development of these resources assists to create the capabilities of individuals and groups in advance of a time of crisis or difficulty, other than providing corrective action afterward. This demonstrates an approach of social investment to social policy, in which, via identifying the worth of human capital along with other assets, entailing social capital, a nation can assist equip its people with capabilities to fully engage in economic and social life of the nation. A focus upon social policy permits for a closer analysis of the capability of groups and individuals to form linkages amid themselves as well as with organizations at national and local level. Having an understanding of these relational dimensions is especially significant within the framework where governments are highly looking for means of supporting local communities along with citizen participation via partnerships and mobilization of the local resources. It allows governments to understand the way links amid several actors within the society can contribute to a more integrated approach to involvement and action, improved access to the untapped resources and development of novel community resources (Briggs, 2004). Methodologies of measuring social capital Social capital can be measured using qualitative or quantitative methodologies. Grootaert (2004) notes that quantitative methodologies usually utilize standardized questionnaires that are given to households or individuals, which are recognized via several types of sampling particularly random sampling. Sampling permits the outcomes to be regarded generalizable, comparable and representative to a broader populace. Offered a collection of recognizing conditions, quantitative data may assist determine correlations amid given outcomes and variables. Such data permits others to authenticate initial findings through independently duplicating the analysis. Integrated questionnaires are the most commonly used qualitative methods of measuring social capital. Integrated questionnaires use a set of survey questions to people living in a certain community. These questions generate quantitative data of several aspects of social capital as a portion of a wider household survey such as living standards measurement survey or household expenditure/income survey. Integrated questionnaires methodology of social capital measurement focuses upon measurement of social capital at micro level or at the level of individuals and households. Because integrated questionnaire was developed as a section for living standards measurement surveys, it doesn’t gather data on social capital at community level. All queries are addressed to persons, in context of a household survey, with the goal of obtaining information on participation of members of household in communal action. Some questions ask on respondent’s view of particular community attributes like the ability of the community to work jointly to deal with disasters or to address matters of universal concern. In integrated questionnaire methodology, the questions asked consider the extent and nature of the participation of household members in several forms of informal networks and social organizations, and the variety of contributions that an individual offers and attains from them. There are also questions that seek to recognize the extent and nature of differences and divisions present in communities, the schemes through which they are controlled and groups that are eliminated from major public services. Queries concerning daily types of social interrelations are also asked (Grootaert, 2004) According to Christiaan and Bastelaer (2002) qualitative methodologies usually refer to a variety of data collection and analysis schemes that utilize purposive sampling along with open-ended semi-structured interviews. These methods, which produce and examine textual data, permit for highly in-depth analysis of political, economic and social processes. Qualitative methods of social capital measurement value and integrate experiential knowledge into examination of development failures and success. Studying poverty along with other social issues from the exterior tends to support proficiency, which might or might not involve an appreciation of context of several local situations. Qualitative techniques as well as open ended responses tilts expertise and power balance away from research toward community members and respondents. Qualitative schemes of measuring social capital are crucial for measuring social capital because they are able to examine intricate issues of context, causality and process. Focus group discussions and open end questioning are designed to permit respondents to recognize and express their concerns and priorities free from the assumptions and restriction of the researchers. Exploration of social issues from perspectives of diverse groups is significant because several groups in a community have very different or overlapping experiences of social networks and norms (Christiaan, & Bastelaer, 2002) Qualitative methodologies that permit researchers to explore perspectives of diverse and homogenous groups of individuals assist unpack these diverging perspectives in a community. Since social capital is rational and exists amid individuals, inquiring a group of individuals to respond jointly to a particular hypothetical situations and questions yields information that is highly hinted than data obtained from surveys. Christiaan and Bastelaer (2002) argue that rapid rural appraisal and participatory poverty assessment are helpful qualitative methodologies of measuring social capital. Rapid rural appraisal measures social capital by learning about lives of individuals through the use of simple schemes like wealth rankings, role playing, oral histories, transect walk, village map drawing and small group discussions. These techniques allow respondents who aren’t educated on quantitative reasoning or those with meager education to offer significant graphic representations of their livings in a way that offers researchers a swift snapshot of particular elements of their conditions of living. Participatory rural appraisal facilitates dialogue other than extracting information that helps people to understand themselves and thus attain novel insights that leads to social change through empowerment. According to Christiaan and Bastelaer, (2002), people are empowered to the level that they gain a measure of regulation over the processes and institutions that directly influence their well being. The social capital aspect of political action and empowerment explores personal efficiency, sense of satisfaction and capability of group members and networks to influence broader political outcomes and local events. Political action and empowerment can happen in a minute neighborhood association or broader national, local and regional levels. Every level has its individual significance and is measured separately, and also in combination with others. This aspect also measures social cleavages, whether connected to ethnicity, gender, regionalism, or religion. Major informant interviews with labor and political leaders along with representatives of media and judicial system are also significant in exploration of this dimension. In participatory rural appraisal, a proficient facilitator assists communities to create concrete visual drawings of processes that result to illness or deprivation, strategies utilized during crisis and vacillation of availability of resources and prices across diverse season. Drawing social capital information in this scheme assists poor people in a community to envisage of potentially highly effective means of responding to social, economic and political challenges that they encounter in their lives. Participatory methodologies are usually performed in groups and it is fundamental, thus, the participants entail representatives from every of the key subgroups within the community (Christiaan & Bastelaer, 2002). How the concept of social policy is being used to address education Education promotes both social and economic development of nations and societies. Societal levels of achievement of education are connected to the levels of economic progression. Family, state and community involvement in education promotes education outcomes. Within the educational context, social capital is in forms of parental obligations and expectations as well as social networks that are present in the community, school or family are significant for the success of students. According to Woolcock and Narayan, (2000), variations in the academic success of students are attributed to the obligations and expectations of parents to educate their kids, and to the connections and networks amid families which the learning institutions serve. They are also attributed to the academic and disciplinary climate at school and to cultural values and norms that promote the efforts of students. The concept of social capital is a helpful for clarifying the differences in educational performance of students in different nations. Coleman James created the notion of social capital to conceptualize the social processes and patterns that lead to ethnic inequalities of student achievement. Coleman (1988) argues that educational norms, obligations and expectations that exist in a community or family are significant social capital that has the capability of affecting the level of the investment and involvement of parents, which subsequently impact academic success. At family level, the financial capital and cultural capital of a parent is available to the student solely if social connection amid the parents and child is adequately strong. Children from families with huge numbers of siblings or from single parent families have a high probability of being unable to access education as a result of eroded social capital connected with nontraditional family structures. As novel structures of household in contemporary community become highly prevalent, several activities and linkages that offered social capital for next generation do not exist and their nonexistence is detrimental to the learning of children. At institutional level, academic norms and disciplinary climate established by school community along with mutual trust amid school and home are main types of social capital. These types of social capital contribute to the learning outcome of students. They posses an important impact on generating a caring and learning school climate and also promoting the quality of schooling as well as minimizing disparity of learning outcomes amid social class groups. Successful civic education schemes need a distinct combination of social, human and financial capital that reflects certain requirements of societies they serve. Briggs (2004) argues that financial capital is essential for salaries, facility maintenance and purchase of educational materials. However, whilst social capital is an efficient complement of material resources, over reliance on social capital as the substitute for public funding of education might jeopardize relationships that lead to benefits of social capital. If communities and families are depended upon too much to recompense for lack of financial resources or if they don’t have sufficient voice in the process of decision making, they might respond through moving away from public system through taking their kids to private learning institutions or fail to send them to school at all. In addition, strong social capital amid elites have the possibility of impairing education if wealthy families get out of civic education scheme and select private schools. This robs communities’ local leadership, financial resources as well as children who are ready to learn. State community and family involvement is assisting to raise the quality and relevance of education through improving ownership, reaching disadvantaged and remote groups, building consensus, strengthening institutional capability and mustering additional resources. Promotion and acceptance of the importance of education by the community, state and family positively affects academic performance. Family social capital like siblings or parents assisting children with their homework frequently is an efficient buffer against negative effect of low parental education achievement and low socio-economic status on the academic outcomes of children. Woolcock and Narayan, (2000) note that an effective public education system needs a distinct combination of human, social and financial capital that imitate the certain requirements of the societies they serve. Social capital is a vital input for education and also a byproduct of education. Apart from strengthening human capital required for economic development, state accountability and social development, education promotes social capital rich networks and connections. Social capital is generated via education in three major ways; students take part in social capital skills, like reciprocity and participation; schools offer community activity forums and via civil education, children learn ways of participating responsibly within their societies. Educacation strengthen citizenship and promote communal cohesion when students from diverse socio-economic backgrounds acess civic education system. References Coleman, J., (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94, 95-120. Briggs, A., (2004). The social capital: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge. London: Penguin. Cote, S., & Healy, T., (2001). The well-being of nations: The role of human and social capital. Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and development. Putnam, R. D. (1995). 'Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital', Journal of Democracy 6, 65-78. World Bank (1999). 'What is Social Capital?', PovertyNet http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/scapital/whatsc.htm Woolcock, M. (2001). 'The place of social capital in understanding social and economic outcomes', Isuma: Canadian Journal of Policy Research 2:1, pp 1-17. Christiaan, G., & Bastelaer, T., (2002). Understanding and measuring social capital: A multidisciplinary tool for practitioners. Washington D.C.:World Bank. Grootaert , C., (2004). Measuring Social Capital: An Integrated Questionnaire. Washington D.C.: World Bank Publications   Woolcock, M., & Narayan, D., (2000). "Social Capital: Implications for Development Theory, Research, and Policy." The World Bank Research Observer 15 (2):225–249. Read More