Essential Concepts of Cross-Cultural Management - Literature review Example

Introduction Whether operating on a global or a national scale, organizations recognize the ever changing consumer base thus incorporating people from different cultures and backgrounds for their prosperity and success. The utilization of this diverse workforce increases organizational flexibility as well as the adaptation to the environmental changes (Heijden & Jones 2008). However, a big challenge faced by managers is dealing with employees from various cultural backgrounds due to the differences in their beliefs and the use of different languages. Communication between two individuals from different cultures is difficult due to the fact that their backgrounds offer them with different ways of thinking and making interpretations (Jandt 2009). According to Stella & Chung (2004), culture affects effective communication in three ways. Cognitive constraint is the first way through which cross-cultural understanding is interfered with. This constraint illustrates different ways in which culture influences our thinking. The new information that we acquire is added to the knowledge that we already have. The second factor is behavioral constraints. Here, the rules concerning an appropriate behavior in a culture affect the verbal and non verbal communications for that particular culture. Finally, the third factor is emotional constraint. This is how different people in different culture display their emotions. In some cultures, it is normal for one to cry, show anger, yell or get very emotional but in others, they keep their emotions. If managers are not aware of these communication barriers then misunderstandings, unintentional insults may arise as well as breaking cultural taboos in business and social life as well (Gudykunst 2001). Thus, the managers should be prepared and trained to communicate effectively with them for the realization of organizational objectives. Cultural training makes the managers to understand the differences in different cultures and this fosters the appreciation of one another’s culture. According to Gerhardt (2007), it enhances the manager’s effectiveness in dealing with employees and other people from various cultures. Cultural training includes workshops on the different cultures, politics, history, economy, social, religion, and business practices. Cross-cultural training enhances the awareness of various cultural values since they are subconscious. The methods used include written scenarios, experimental and behavioral components involving the active participation of the managers. This kind of training attempts to reduce the misunderstanding of cross cultural interactions. Munter (1993) insists that organizations should train and encourage managers to be proficient communicators for success in the diverse work environment. He argues that the managers should be given insights on their managerial communications. The training encompasses the setting up of communication objectives for managers, choosing effective communication style that will enhance the achievement of the organizational objectives, assessing and enhancing the organizational credibility, overcoming language problem and the use of appropriate non verbal behavior (Gudykunst 2001). Firstly multi national companies should train their managers to delineate what they wish to do consciously and specifically through their communication- is it to provide information, sign a contract, and approve a recommendation or coming up with a solution. They need to consider if their objective is realistic within a given culture given that a goal may be realistic in one culture while in another it is not (Munter 1993). Another aspect is the view of time by different cultures. Some cultures have their timetables being exact and precise like in Germany and Switzerland, while others like African and Latin countries have the perception that is totally different. They have a relaxed and a relative attitude towards it. Second is the need to choose an appropriate communication style. Organizations train their managers the necessity of looking for an effective style of communication objectives. They need to understand the appropriate style to use in a given situation which may not be effectively used in another culture. According to Hofstede (1980), they include “tell”, “sell”, “consult” and “join” styles. If the managers don’t want to involve the audience, they should use the “tell” while the involvement of some audience requires the use of ‘sell style. If managers need to collaborate with the audience, then they use the join style. Finally, if managers wish to acquire some input from the audience, then they use the consult strategy. Some styles are effective in one culture but in others they seem not. The managers are trained to be aware of these variations in choosing a style to use in an autocratic cultures as well as democratic cultures. For instance, according to (Munter 1993), when dealing with a democratic culture where power is more dispersed, managers should use the consult styles in their management practices. For autocratic cultures such as the French, the managers are required to use tell styles since there is high power distances between leaders and the local people. Also, managers have to understand the way people define themselves: either as a group or as individuals. Having understood this, they will be able to use tell/sell styles for individualistic cultures such as in Anglo nations, and consult/join management styles for collectivist culture like South Americans who emphasize more on loyalty and group belonging (Hofstede 1980). The managers should effectively apply this range of styles in dealing with different cultures. Organizations train managers in understanding how the cultural norms determine the message structure, format and channel. Different cultures use different message structure and formats. In some cultures meaning may be derived directly while in others it cannot. It is noted that high context cultures such as Arabic, Korean and Japanese, indirect structure is preferred to direct structure (Munter 1993). These cultures view direct messages as demanding, abrupt and intrusive. Those cultures that are authoritarian demand that managers use direct structures through downward communication process. In cross cultural communication, managers should use technological advancements such as the use of electronic mail, computer, phones, video teleconferencing and facsimile transmission. However, they should be aware of the technology that is available and acceptable in the culture that he sends a message to (Waiguchu, Tiagha & Mwaura 1999). Managers are trained to assess and enhance credibility matters for effective communication. It is necessary for the managers to understand that different cultures differ in their aspects of credibility. These include the expertise of knowledge, attractiveness, and rank credibility, personal good will for an audience and the shared values and standards of an audience (Munter 1993). For instance, cultures where good will is the important form of credibility, managers should first build an entire kind of personality and social trust before engaging in a business. For cultures where image is highly credited, the managers have to work hard in establishing credibility which will enhance effective management. Selection and motivation of the audience matter a lot in establishing an effective communication by the managers. Organizations train their managers on the need to choose and appeal to the audience depending on their expectations. Managers should be made to understand the following concepts that appeal to the selected audience such as persuasion, influence, task enhancement, security, personal relationships, altrusion, satisfaction and fulfillment. Different cultures have different forms of appeal to the audience (Rogers & Steinfatt 1998). It is therefore necessary for the managers to know the exact appeal that the audience in a given culture needs. They need also understand what motivates individuals in a given culture. Managers are thus able to select an appropriate management strategy that increases productivity and create effective communication with one another. Another important aspect that managers are trained is overcoming language difficulties. Language problems form the biggest barriers in cross cultural communication. Jandt (2009) argues that even if English language is used by everyone, the dialects, accents, jargon, and slang involved may differ tremendously among countries, cultures and organizations. Managers find difficulties in their work with a culture that uses a different language. Therefore they should train on the new language in overcoming isolation and vulnerability hence achieving good relationships and other associated business advantages. Use of non verbal behaviors is also necessary knowledge that managers need to understand when dealing with people from different cultures. According to Munter (1993), organizations train managers to recognize that not only language which bars an effective communication but also the non verbal behaviors such as body language, space around a person, greeting behavior, as well as vocal qualities. Various cultures have various notions concerning with the gestures made, one’s posture, eye contact, touching, volume, pitch and facial expressions (Jandt 2009). Managers must be able to recognize the meaning of gestures made for a given culture. They should also avoid using gestures that are considered to be insulting or rude. Finally, greeting behavior such as either the use of a first name or surname in referring to a person, use of a title really matters since different cultures perceive them differently. The manager should be made aware of these so that they know how to interact with people in that culture. Conclusion Culture determines the kind of management communication that a manager uses in a given culture, which usually differs from one culture to another. Organization offer training to their managers so that they are able to communicate effectively in different countries, regions, organizations and subcultures keeping in mind that they need to discuss on the culture before they start working there. One has to learn about politics, government economies, industry language, food and sports, cultural achievements, traditions, and social structures (Munter 1993). The managers learn to listen, react as well as interpret the culture where they are working. They should stay alert, flexible and be willing to modify their ideas. Besides, they should initiate their colleagues in learning by examples; more especially in using the non verbal communication method. Finally, what really matters is the open attitude that one sets of being patient, objective, tolerant, empathetic and respectful. This increases the managers’ understanding, cooperation and effectiveness in managing the diverse culture. List of references Edwards, M (2002), Understanding cultural diversity is the key to effective communication, Funakawa, A (1997), Transcultural Management: A New Approach for Global Organization, Jossey-Bass Gerhardt PL (2007) Diversity at Work, Xlibris Corporation, London. Gudykunst, W (2001), Handbook of international and intercultural communication, Sage, California Heijden, B., & Jones S, (2008), Managing cultural diversity, Meyer & Meyer Varlag, Germany. Hofstede, GH (1980), Cultures consequences: international differences in work-related values, Sage publications, New York. Jandt, FE (2009), An introduction to intercultural communication: identities in a global community, Sage publications, New York. Munter, M (1993), “Cross-cultural communication for managers. Business Horizons Journal, 36 (3), pp.69-81 Rogers, EM., & Steinfatt, TM (1998), Intercultural communication, Waveland Press, Miami. Stella, T., & Chung LC (2004), Understanding intercultural communication, Oxford University Press, USA. Thomas, DC (2008), Cross-cultural management: essential concepts, (2nd ed), Sage, New York. Waiguchu, J., Tiagha, E & Mwaura F (1999), Management of organizations in Africa: a handbook and reference, Greenwood Publishing Group, USA Read More