Integrated Transport Systems of Maasai Mara Game Reserve - Case Study Example

Studies on integrated transport systems of Maasai Mara game reserve Table of contents Studies on integrated transport systems of Maasai Mara game reserve 1 Table of contents 1 INTRODUCTION 2 Significance of the study 3 Background of the study 4 Statement of the problem 6 Effectiveness of transport system provided to tourists 7 Quality of transport system in place for Maasai Mara 12 Movement of vehicles within, into and out of Nairobi city 13 Patterns of movement within Maasai Mara 15 Problems posed by Maasai community towards growth of tourism 15 Integration of public and private transport system to Maasai Mara 16 International modes of transport system to Kenya 17 Challenges facing growth of tourism in Maasai Mara 18 The way forward: developing a sustainable tourism industry in Maasai Mara 19 The expected outcomes 19 Conclusion 20 Recommendations 22 Bibliography 24 INTRODUCTION The number of people with disabilities or reduced mobility is on the increase. This is as a result of increase of diseases like osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, arthritis and rheumatoid arthritis (Roberts,Reiss and Monger 2000). Loss of bone suppleness and bone density as a result of aging process is the major contributor to increase in physical disabilities especially when the old fall and their bones break (Monger 2000). Other causes of physical disabilities include automobile accidents that lead into bone fractures and spinal cord injuries. Due to poor nutritional status of pregnant women, many children are being born that have impaired vision (Roberts, Reiss and Monger 2000). Visual disabilities are increasing as a result of diseases like blindness due to inadequate maternal Vitamin A and poor nutritional supplements especially iron, vitamin A and Iodine that affect psychomotor development and eyesight during early childhood development. Poor eye sight may be genetically predisposed with increase of color blind persons who have characteristic visual disabilities for particular colors. These problems affect accessibility to transport systems because the disabled persons have to be assisted and guided in order to be able to use different transport systems (Dorfman, 2001:36-41: Wasike, 2001). Efficient transport system is a function of time and quicker access to services subject to independent free circulation about different modes of transport and among different facilities is a vital component of quality of life and quality of transport system (Davenport, 1998, O'Connor, 1965: 21-30). With increased congestion of traffic, interchange between different modes of transport system is becoming difficult. The future of efficient transport system is a function of integrated transport system that makes it possible for people, both disabled and able-bodied, to have fast access to transport systems (African Development Bank, 1999). Security against wildebeest is another concern that affects both disabled and able-bodied tourists (Hill, 1949). This is because tourists do not understand myths of relating with and co-existing among the wildebeests. For instance, a tourist can walk past a den of lions but is not supposed to run as this may make the lions run after them or a tourist may walk comfortable past a herd of elephants if the tourist passes on the leeward side. Significance of the study The report will provide guidelines on what need to be done to improve transport requirements for disabled tourists to Maasai Mara. The report will highlight factors that negatively affect international transport policies and how they compare with transport systems for Maasai Mara. The report will offer qualitative and quantitative guidelines on integrated transport policies for tourists to Maasai Mara and offer feasible tourist movement patterns. It will provide solutions to challenges that tourists face in their efforts to comfortably enjoy their travel to Maasai Mara. The report will analyze feasibility of using private and public transport systems and their potential efficiencies. Background of the study The transport network to Maasai Mara is very poor and is characterized by very poor road network. Transport costs vary according to mode of road transport used. Tour agents charge a flat rate of KSHs. 2000.00 for able-bodied international tourists and KSHs. 3000.00 for disabled international tourists from Nairobi City to Maasai Mara while able-bodied domestic tourists pay KSHs. 400.00 and disabled domestic tourists pay KSHs. 600.00, KSHs. 3000.00 for a two day boarding facility that includes accommodation and meals and entertainment. All other costs like game viewing and balloon drives are pay-as-you-use services. A balloon drive costs KSHs. 1000.00 per thirty minutes for able-bodied tourists who have travel insurance and KSHs. 5000.00 for those who are not insured. Maasai community tour with a Maasai Moran costs KSHs. 2000.00 per day for able-bodied tourists and entry to Maasai Traditional dances and festivals costs KHs. 1000.00 for international tourists and KSHs. 300.00 for domestic tourists irrespective of disability status. Tourist vehicles get stuck on the road during wet season and during the dry season, the roads are very dusty. The cost of pushing a tourist van off the mud varies depending on presence or absence of a tour guide. In the presence of a tour guide, the charges are negotiable and vary between KSHs. 300.00 to KSHs. 500.00. In the absence of a tour guide, the fees are as high as KSHs. 4000.00 to KSHs. 9000.00. This depends on the season and if the local residents involved had helped to pull another stuck tourist van in the mud. The more vehicles they help to get out of the mud, the less they charge. Tourists are prone to spending nights on their way when their vans get stuck and this exposes them to insecurity from gangsters and wildebeests. Local residents guard the vehicles and charges lie between KSHs. 3500.00 to KSHs. 6000.00. This is depended on whether the tourist van is near a police station or not. Many investors are not willing to commit their capital to the road network especially via Namanga because the Maasai Mara scenery attains between mid July to September when annual migration of wildebeest takes place from the lower Serengeti national park in Tanzania. There is also problem of regulation of the transport network to Maasai Mara. Public transport from Nairobi to maasai Mara goes up at end month due to increase in human traffic to maasai Mara to the tune of 150% normal fares and during July to September, public transport fares increase to the tune of 300% due to increase of mobility of people to watch annual wildebeests migration. Tour agents travel and package tours do not vary. Integrated transport is not in place though it is expected to bring about increased capacity, efficiency and reliability of the transport system. It is expected to solve the problem of transport and put Maasai Mara on the world map of easily accessible tourist destination all year round. Overview of Maasai Mara Maasai Mara is located in a traditional setting of Maasai community and though the Maasai community is highly hospitable, there are cultural, customary and traditional ethics that tourists are likely to fail to observe and this, though well understood, affects the quality of reception of future tourists (Hampton and Weston, 2002). Statement of the problem Transport system to Maasai Mara national park is failing economic growth of the tourism industry. This is because there are no vehicles that are strategically designed or built to accommodate disabled tourists on wheelchair. Most of the tourist vans to Maasai Mara pose boarding and alighting difficulties as their doors are very narrow. The disabled tourists are forced to disembark from their wheelchairs and sit on seats that are designed for the able-bodied persons (Hampton and Weston, 2002). The safety seat belts are designed for able-bodied and disabled persons find no comfort when travelling to and from Maasai Mara. Similar problems are encountered in public transport vehicles. There is high incidence of physically disabled persons slipping off their seats when the vehicles go over potholes or emergency breaks are applied (R & N Xplore Africa Safaris, 2002;2003, Uyaphi Safaris, 2000). This often leads into physical injuries that lead into cancellation of the trip. This scenario costs fleet companies heavy loses in terms of medical costs and compensation. Public service vehicles are therefore reluctant to transport physically disabled persons to Maasai Mara due to challenges of medical costs in the event the disabled person succumbs to a slip off their seats. Game drives of disabled persons is also not oriented to accommodate disabled persons because the tourist vans lack pressured lifts to raise the disabled tourists to gain a better view of the game. Many of the accommodation facilities have stairs that make it hard for disabled tourists to use the facilities independently. The tour management is reluctant to admit tourists on wheel chair because that translates into more human labor for taking care of the tourists who opt for package tours alongside able-bodied. Many tourist vans lack ramps or mobile lifts to enable independent access to people with disabilities. They also lack space for guide dogs that accompany many disabled tourists. The floors of the tourist vans do not allow free movement of wheelchair or pushchairs. Tourist vehicles also lack designated areas for wheelchairs. Effectiveness of transport system provided to tourists There is no integrated transport system for tourists who are destined for Maasai Mara Game reserve from Nairobi city or Mombasa city. Access to Maasai Mara game reserve is by road network from either of the international airports thus Eldoret international airport, Moi International Airport and Jomo Kenyatta International Airport. The road network is not well developed and during the rain season, tourist vans get stuck in the mud. This puts tourists to risks of attack by gangsters and wildebeests. Characteristics of tourists vans to Maasai Mara The tourist vans to Maasai Mara national park do not have ramps or mobile lifts and therefore tourists with disabilities are assisted to board or alight from the vans (Dorfman, 2001). The doors of the tourist vans are very narrow to make it possible for wheelchairs to be safely boarded into the vans. The wheel chairs have to be folded at the expense of assisting the disabled tourist to board the van. The disabled tourist is made to use seats that are designed for use by the able-bodied persons. There is no priority seating arrangement in place for tourists that have disabilities or reduced mobility. At the same time, the tourist vans do not have designated areas for wheelchairs that are used by tourists with physical disabilities. The tourist vans do not have space for guide dogs that accompany some of the tourists with disabilities. For tourists that are color blind or reduced visual abilities, there exists a challenge of recognizing tourist vans. This is because some of the tourist vans do not have contrasting colors. There is also a challenge of minimal information about travel for the people with disabilities. This affects tourists financial planning. Further, the buses and coaches that ply Maasai Mara route do not have portable ramps or mobile lifts. Characteristic features of parking with respect to people with disabilities There is no designated parking for people with disabilities either in the Maasai Mara national park or in the heart of Nairobi city. All cars are parked at a rate of KSHs.70.00 per day irrespective of disability status. There is currently no transport policy in place for introduction of parking slots for people with disabilities unlike other international destinations like European countries where people with disabilities are provided with reserved parking zones and parking cards. There are no parking cards that are issued to disabled persons in Kenya. Tour Agents have provision for a monthly parking fee that is paid once whether they use parking or fail to use them. The cost varies depending on seating capacity of the van. A 25-seater tourist van pays KSHs. 1500.00 while an 8-seater tourist van is charged KSHs. 1200.00. Characteristics of accommodation facilities with respect to people with disabilities or reduced mobility Most of the old buildings do not have lifts and in many instances, people with disabilities are forced to use stairs to access upper floors. The access of physically disabled persons to the buildings is limited. In the event a physically disabled person books in the buildings, the physically disabled person is assisted to navigate from one floor to another. Therefore lack of built environment that takes into account user-friendliness for the disabled persons is viewed as a matter of concern for reduced number of disabled persons and their frequency in the future. In many instances, the buildings that have stairs as the only method of accessing upper floors of the buildings usually have no repeat services from same disabled tourists. It is only modern buildings that have access to lifts and elevators that record repeat services from disabled tourists. The frequency and the number of users in the modern buildings are higher compared to buildings that have only stairs as a method of accessing upper floors. The future plans for tourist vans and their alignment towards sustainable integrated transport system It is hoped that the transport system is going to align itself to satisfy characteristic features of integrated transport system. This is hoped to bring about accessible transport facilities for people with disabilities and is expected to increase number of users of the facilities as well as help to increase frequency of use. It will also help to reduce transport costs by up to 40%. The future of integrated transport system The tourists vans will be equipped with mobile lifts and ramps that will make it possible for people with disabilities to board and alight from the vans independently. It is expected that the tourist vans will have designated areas for wheel chairs and space will be incorporated for guide dogs for tourist that are accompanied by them. This will come at a cost as it will have an effect of reducing carrying capacity of the tourist vans. It is expected that tourist vehicles will have color codes that color blind tourist can easily identify. This will help in reducing the number of tourist aides that are required to assist the tourists who are disabled. It is expected that measures will be put in place to ensure availability of pre-travel information for disabled tourists either domestic or international. This will be posted on the websites of different travel agencies and consultants. The travel agencies that do not have websites will incorporate similar guidelines in their websites on developing and launching them or in their mail–orders that they send to their current customer base. It is expected that the buses and coaches to Maasai Mara game reserve will be designed in order to have lowered platforms for vans and raised platforms for buses and coaches. They will also be equipped with mobile lifts and ramps in order to increase independence of tourists that have physical disabilities. Further, the buses will have wider doors in order to improve easier access for the wheel chairs and pushchairs. The buses will have user-friendly floors that will make it easier for wheelchairs and push chairs to move freely. The cost of reconstructing an 8-seater tourist van is estimated at KSHs. 45,000.00 while the cost of reconstructing a 25 seater tourist van is KSHs. 120,000.00. An eight seater tourist van will have capacity of five tourists while a 25-seater van will have a capacity of 20 depending on the amount of space for guide dogs and wheelchairs available. The future of reserved parking for people with disabilities People with disabilities will have access to parking reserved solely for them. In areas where the parking zones will not have designated parking for people with disabilities, disabled persons will be issued with parking cards. Parking cards for the disabled people will only be of value to those that are satisfied as disabled. Disabled persons will be required to carry their parking cards irrespective of whether they are travelling in their friends or relatives car, traveling for holidays either domestic or international or when renting cars. The bearer of the parking card for the disabled persons will have access to discounts and free parking in designated zones of the towns. Quality of transport system in place for Maasai Mara Interchange between one mode of transport and another is not possible since the only mode of transport to Maasai Mara via the road network. This applies from Nairobi city, Mombasa City or Kisumu city to Maasai Mara national park. The Maasai Mara game reserve has no access to railway line or airport facilities or water transport. Use of helicopters as a means of air transport is minimal and can scare away wildebeests and make them hostile. It is also very expensive to hire helicopters to ferry tourists to Maasai Mara. There are no chartered flights that link Maasai Mara or its environs but with economic growth and more tourists pouring in, the growth of chartered flights is likely to stimulate expansion and timely introduction of chartered flights to Maasai Mara national park. Therefore, the quality of transport system to Maasai Mara is very poor. The road and feeder roads to Maasai Mara are usually impassable during the rainy season as the tourist vans get stuck in the mud. Disable persons who use facilities meant for able-bodied persons do not enjoy the journey from Nairobi to Maasai Mara. The rough road that is full of potholes and gullies exposes the disabled persons to the risks of slipping off their seats and sustaining injuries. many transport and tour operators do not want to take risks of transporting disable persons to maasai Mara due to high insurance costs and medical expenses that the transport firm is likely to pay in the event a disabled persons slips off the seat and hits the chair in front of them when the van or the bus goes over bumps that the driver may have failed to see or when driver applies emergency brakes to avoid deep potholes that can make the bus lose control and skid off the road. The tour operators view use of disabled persons of their services as an added cost since more human personnel is required to support the disabled persons. Use of support staff for disabled persons increases number of tourist vans that are used especially in the event of a package tour. In this regard, discrimination on access of transport system for disabled persons exists not because there is low value for disabled persons but due to fear of risks involved. Movement of vehicles within, into and out of Nairobi city The road network faces challenges of traffic congestion and this leads into delays and excess use of fuel. An 8-seater van wastes up to 1.5 liters of fuel that rounds off to KSHs. 150.00 per ten kilometers while a 25-seater wastes an up to 3 liters of gas depending on the intensity of traffic jams and this costs the company an excess of KSHS. 300.00 for every ten kilometers. This is subject to poor planning of road network within Nairobi city and its environs as well as under-investment. Expansion of the road network is also limited because of compensation costs for land users and unwillingness of affected people to relocate. Congestion and high traffic increases costs of transport with respect to fuel costs used and this has an effect of contributing to air pollution and increasing green house gases. Environmentalists view expansion measures as efforts towards restraining efforts to effectively manage global warming and reducing carbon dioxide sinks. This makes it impossible for efforts towards adoption of integrated transport system and its development to be strained. The airport facilities are very far from the Nairobi central business district. The international airport, Jomo Kenyatta international airport is far and links to Mombasa highway that has the highest traffic congestions since Mombasa road serves the Maasai Mara national parks and all southern regions as well as serving all feeder roads to eastern province and coastal regions. The railway line is only one in Kenya that links the coastal regions with the Nairobi city and the western regions. The railway lines serves only economically endowed areas (Hill, 1949). Accessibility as a function of distance covered and mode of transport that is available is very poor. Spatial and transportation aspects are limiting factors to integrated transport system. Patterns of movement within Maasai Mara Movement within Maasai Mara reserve can be accomplished via the road or hot air balloon. There are also provision for bicycles in areas where there are no dangerous wildebeests like tiger, leopards and cheetah. They bicycles charges KSHs. 300.00 for every five kilometers. Motorcycle rides costs KSHs. 800.00 for an equivalent distant. Nature walks are also possible but within areas that that are safe from attack by wildebeest like buffalos. Maasai morans or warriors are used to escort tourists because they understand the threat of different wildebeests. The charges for Moran escorts vary depending on the season of the year. The charges lie within KSHs. 2000.00 to 3000.00 per day. They are also skilled in fighting animals by using knives. A Moran is a Maasai youth who has managed to kill a male lion in order to secure potential of getting a bride. Movement within the Maasai community can be made possible by using bicycle taxis (called locally as bodaboda). A visit to the Maasai village is famed for a tourist exposure to Maasai dance and high straight jumps that attain a height of up to two meters. Problems posed by Maasai community towards growth of tourism Maasai Mara game reserve lies in the heart of Maasai community. Maasai community is traditionally nomadic. Most of the Maasai are pastoralists and keep on migrating from one place to another in search of pastures for their livestock and water. Development of road network, railway network and airports will therefore put pressure on the land and reduce their grazing land. This will have an effect of affecting their major economic activity, pastoralist. Maasai are well known for their conservation and preservation of their culture and customs. Infiltration of tourism is likely to bring about changes in lifestyles. Maasai elders are less likely to buy the ideas of modern dressing and may strain efforts of tourism growth and development. Tourism is viewed to be linked to sexual trade and growth of commercial sex. Maasai customs and traditions may bar initiatives and efforts towards sustainable growth of tourism since it is likely to bring about abandonment of their valued culture, customs and traditions. Presence of sexual trade may lead into lack of marriage of many Maasai girls since purity is a major factor of concern when choice of bride is being made among the Maasai community. Introduction and growth of tourism may lead into introduction of poaching rules in order to conserve the wildebeests especially lions that Maasai bridegrooms must kill using a knife in order to prove their masculinity. Killing of a lion b a Maasai bridegroom is taken and valued as potential of the Maasai bridegroom to be able to protect his bride. Growth of tourism will mean the Maasai community will be forced to seek other methods of determining bridegroom potential of protecting his bride. Elders are not likely to subscribe to the idea since their livelihood will be changed. Integration of public and private transport system to Maasai Mara Public transport system to Maasai Mara as a measure towards sustainable growth of tourism and adoption of transport policies is not likely to bear any success. The operators may not be certain about the possible frequency and number of disabled tourists to Maasai Mara that is only active from mid-July to September during annual wildebeest migration. They are therefore not likely to commit any investment towards any initiative that is a function of factoring disabled person needs into their transport plans. This is because public transport system is a profit oriented entity and the needs to incorporate buses or coaches that have dog space for dogs that accompany tourists is not a dream in the near future. In many communities, a dog in a bus is taken as a taboo and a symbol of bad omen. The operators would not want to limit access to their services for certain communities who consider a dog to be a bad omen. The need to implement the policy where buses or vans have provision for wheel chairs or push chairs and platforms for easier movement would decrease seating capacity of the vans and buses and consequently lower the expected output if the disabled persons will be subject to discounts. International modes of transport system to Kenya Access to Kenya for international tourists is fully supported by a diverse transport system that includes air and sea transport (Bird, 1983:196-202,Hill, 1949). Accessibility from Kenya by land is possible via the Mombasa – Nairobi - Kampala railway network (Bird, Seaports as a subset of gateway for regions:, 1980: 360-370). From every railway terminus, airport or sea port, movement of tourist’s hinterland is accomplished by road mainly except from Mombasa to Nairobi where there is possibility of railway line, air transport or road (Bird, Seaports as a subset of gateway for regions:, 1980). Kenya has currently gained access to chartered flights but these are only serving Nairobi Jomo Kenyatta International Airport and Mombasa Moi International Airport. Challenges facing growth of tourism in Maasai Mara Presence of poor communication system from Nairobi city to Maasai Mara game reserve is responsible for poor tourism growth. This is due to lack of good political goodwill. This occurs mainly during the rainy season when the all weather roads are impassable and tourist vans get stuck. Congestion of vehicles due to high traffic jams causes unnecessary delays in movement of tourist to Maasai Mara game reserve. There is lack of motivational and incentive systems that could foster growth of tourism and its eventual acceptance by the Maasai community as an alternative economic activity that could replace pastoralism. The Maasai community should be given incentives in order to see the value of abandoning their lifeline of pastoralism to tourism and pave way for tourism growth. There are limited resources in terms of human resource, financial endowment and training for tourism knowledge management. This means skills for tourism knowledge management are to be learned at the expense of time. The way forward: developing a sustainable tourism industry in Maasai Mara There is need for developing and instituting a knowledge oriented culture, creating organizational structures that nurture and foster growth of tourism, adopting effective multi-cultural tools and developing senior management support that are oriented and geared towards sustainable tourism growth initiatives. There should be measures to ensure there is development of integrated transport systems to Maasai Mara in order to improve quicker accessibility of tourists to Maasai Mara. This will help to create employment opportunities to the Maasai community. The expected outcomes Adoption of integrated transport policies will lead into increasing transport needs and will be a stimulant to increasing transport of able bodied persons and disabled persons and this will aid in increasing traffic both in the road, railway and air transport. This will be a function of effective management practices of resources. This will ensure no spread of water, vector and air borne diseases as a result of adopting sustainable strategies towards managing and conserving environment. Adoption of integrated transport system will lead into development of eco-tourism that will help to open new untouched virgin environments within Maasai Mara to tourists and help in effective management of local fauna and flora. Community tourism will also be given an opportunity to grow as a result of community exposure to tourists and exchange of cultural knowledge. This will ultimately make tourism a right to everybody as opposed to a privilege of those who are able-bodied and are able to finance their travel. Responsible tourism that will be achieved through integrated transport system will also help in reducing and managing global warming. In the event of a tourist van carrying only disabled persons; the package tours should be limited to about six to eight disabled persons. There should be no increase in transport costs in order to encourage disabled tourists to take part in international tourism. Conclusion There is a need for developing a responsible tourism that is supported by adoption of integrated transport systems (Amin, 1980). Integrated transport system will make it possible for tourists to be able to change from one mode of transport to another and increase access to the Maasai Mara sceneries. Availability of integrated transport system will lead into decrease in transport costs that domestic tourists experience and open Maasai Mara to domestic tourism. Integrated transport system will also reduce excess costs charged to disabled tourists. Integrated transport will help to ensure tourists travelling to Maasai Mara game reserve have access to insurance facilities that would cover for any unexpected event that occurs to able-bodied or disabled tourists. This will facilitate development of a user-friendly, enjoyable and authentic holiday experience that maximizes benefits of tourism to different Maasai Mara tourist viewing sites while at the same time reducing negative social and environmental impacts of tourism that could minimize growth of tourism (Hoyles, 1999). There is a necessity to involve local maasai community in the tourism industry by enlarging self determination and pride as a product of effectively managed tourism industry as an economic activity and adherence to environment care and conservation to meet demands of environmentalists who would otherwise be against the idea of environmental degradation that is associated with development of integrated transport systems. The tourists need to be given additional information about Maasai community and how they lifestyle trends affect tourism and the kinds of lifestyles that they live and what they expect of the visitors. This will help to minimize conflict that may arise due to non-conformance with Maasai traditions and customs. This can be accomplished by giving out leaflets or information sheets to tourists. Tourists can also be given feedback forms that they can fill depending on their satisfaction levels of the services that are rendered to them. This milestone will help in carrying out analysis of improving future tourism and transport policies and help in improving current transport policies. It is also a form of exchange of thoughts and ideas on how best the integrated transport system could be structured in order to deliver the best of value to the able-bodied persons as well as the disabled persons. There is also an aspect of nurturing commitment among suppliers of supplies with respect to their working practices. This has an effect of fostering corporate and social responsibility among different players in the tourism industry. Recommendations There is need to bring transport system of Maasai Mara to international standards by taking into account systemic approaches that are a function of cultural landscapes, cross level analysis and network analysis. This would enable transport system to Maasai Mara to conform to international policies of transport systems that are subject to simulative modeling and are function of system based models, input-output models, agent based models and participatory models. Narrative techniques should be employed that include careful case selection, natural experiments, rival hypothesis theorem, counter-factual analysis and process tracing. Social science based approaches should also be evaluated that are function of approach perspectives and approach paradigms. The perspective aspect should illustrate three primary aspects that are agent based mechanisms that involves decision oriented processes, structural system based mechanisms that are subject to rules and narrative techniques that are event characteristics. The paradigms applicable for future studies should be based on collective action modes. Configurational comparison studies should also be carried out based on meta-analysis and qualitative comparative analysis. Bibliography African Development Bank. (1999). African Development Report 1999. Infrastructure Development in Africa . Amin, M. Willets,D and Matheson A. (1980). Railways across the equaltor: the story of the East African line. London: Bodley Head. Bird, J. H. (1980). Seaports as a subset of gateway for regions:. progress in human geography , vol.4 (issue no. 4), 360-370. Bird, J.H. (1983). Slow recognition but irrestitible rise. Tijdschrift Vour Economische en sociale geografie , Vol. 74 (Issue 3), 196-202. Davenport, T. 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