Customer Knowledge Management - Literature review Example

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT By (Name) Name of Class (Course) Professor (Tutor) Name of Institution (University) City and State The Date Knowledge has been acknowledged as a major source of competitiveness and survival of an organization; a significant strategic resource. Knowledge management can be defined as methodical procedure of managing knowledge processes, assets, and environments in order to facilitate the creation, sharing, organization, measurement and utilization of knowledge to achieve the aims of a company (Awad & Ghaziri, 2010). Knowledge is however an elusive concept; its complex nature makes it a challenge to the knowledge management specialists in organizations (Debowski, 2010). There have been different approaches put in place to help in the process of knowledge management. Among these methodologies, the information and communication technology approach has been most commonly used. Information and communication technology offers exceptional potentials and capabilities for managing knowledge. Efforts in knowledge management can considerably aid groups and individuals share valuable insights related to the company, reduce training time for employees, reduce redundant work, adapt to the ever transforming environments and retain intellectual capital (Awad & Ghaziri, 2010). There is also a new cohort of combined tools used for knowledge management known as Web 2.0. This is a set of applications that are based on the internet which connect network effects by aiding participative and collaborative computing (Stephens, 2007). This paper aims to highlight the various ways by which information and communication technology can be used to aid knowledge management initiatives in companies and also evaluate the role of Web 2 technologies in the same. ICT in Knowledge management The concept of coding and transferring knowledge is not new to companies. Organizational policies, training and employee development programs, reports, routines, manuals and procedures have been serving the knowledge management function for decades. The new concept in knowledge management area is the prospect for using modern information and communication technologies to support the knowledge management processes that include the creation and exchange of knowledge within and between companies (Maier, 2007). The contemporary IT can collect, structure, store, combine, systemize, present and distribute information to employees. The effective use of tools that facilitate knowledge is very important. Various tools for computing knowledge have been recently developed. Currently, technological approaches to managing knowledge still dominate the corporate world. The leading vendors of commercial knowledge management systems are in a market that was worth close to 8.5 million dollars almost a decade and a half ago; this was for knowledge management software and services (Hawamdeh, 2005). Most initiatives in knowledge management rely on ICT as a crucial enabling factor. The information and communication based approach to knowledge management has featured a broad range of applications and technologies. These include knowledge portals, knowledge creation applications, content and document management systems, information retrieval engines, electronic publishing systems, Intranets, , push technologies, help-desk applications, customer relationship management, data warehouse, relational and object databases, data mining, , expertise networking, intelligent agents, business process reengineering conferencing, messaging email, groupware and workflow systems and chat rooms (Baets, 2005). Knowledge management systems have been specifically designed to facilitate the assimilation and sharing of knowledge by collecting, organizing, circulating and even creating a company’s knowledge as opposed to data or information. It is not a single technology but a collection of classifying, indexing and information-retrieval techniques combined with strategies designed to produce results for the users (Al-Shammari, 2009). These technologies enable the search functionality which enables users look for important knowledge, workflow and content management that puts knowledge into categories and takes it to the employees and collaboration where the knowledge is shared. These are information technology based systems that were created in order to enhance and support the company processes of creating, transferring, storing, retrieving and using knowledge. Knowledge creation process Creating knowledge involves coming up with new content or replacing the existing one within the categorical and implicit knowledge of the organization. This is done through individuals’ cognitive processes and technological collaborative and social process (Lundin, Herlau & Rasmussen, 2002). Knowledge is created through the following four approaches: internalization, externalization, socialization and combination. Organizations can use intranets to enable multi-organizational exposure to larger amounts of information that is available online. The intranet provides the opportunity for individuals to convert categorical knowledge to personal tacit knowledge. This can be done through computer simulation and smart software instructions. Knowledge storage and retrieval It is normal for organizations to forget knowledge that they created and learnt. This necessitates the storage, organization and retrieval of the knowledge. This is done using advanced computer storage technology and similarly sophisticated retrieval techniques like multimedia databases, query languages and database management systems. These increase the promptness with which the knowledge can be accessed. Document management technologies enable the storage and accessibility of a company’s past knowledge. Repository technologies, document management tools also help in the storage of knowledge. Knowledge transfer Knowledge can be transferred from one individual to another, from individuals to explicit sources, individuals to groups, between two or more groups, or from a group to the company. This transfer of information is usually done through information flows and communication processes. Information and communication technologies can be used for the above processes; the most creative use of technology for the transfer of knowledge is the use of intelligent agent software or even video technologies. Information and communication technologies can be used to escalate knowledge transfer by increasing the reach of the individual beyond the official communication lines (Kahin, & Foray, 2006). Electronic bulletin boards, computer networks and discussion groups aid in the interaction between the knowledge seeker and those with access to the knowledge. Knowledge Application process The ability of applying acquired knowledge is as (if not more) important as acquiring it. ICT can support the application of technology by incorporating it into the company processes. Information and communication technologies can enhance the application and integration of knowledge by enabling the capture, updating and accessing the directives of an organization (Kahin, & Foray, 2006). Information and communication technologies can also increase the rate at which knowledge is applied and integrated by automating and codifying the processes of the company. Web 2.0 Technologies Web 2.0 is a new concept of internet-based collaborative tools which has significantly increased in power, availability and popularity in the recent past years. It has been identified as an effective knowledge management model due to its ability to assimilate the conventional knowledge management tools’ features with social computing which evolves knowledge through social Interactions (Livingston, 2010). This gives it the potential address a good number of the knowledge management challenges faced by companies. Web 2.0, otherwise known as the Social Web has introduced new concepts and tools with the ability to put into operation a vision that is more social centred. Social networking systems found online like Myspace, Facebook and LinkedIn enables the interaction of individuals with others on a large scale (Fowler & Stanwick, 2004). New communication tools such as blogs and micro-blogs like twitter, instant messaging tools such as WhatsApp and Skype have made available new communication tools that enhance interactions with others in open communities. There has also been the emergence of new tools like social bookmarking and Wikis with the purpose of supporting personal knowledge management directly and promoting combined intelligence. This new concept seems to be extremely promising and relevant that experts perceive it as the future of knowledge management (Tsui, 2005). They hope that the new Web 2.0 tools will aid in the realization of the knowledge management challenge. Web 2.0 has helped in personal knowledge management through a set of tools which allow the creation, organisation, codifying and sharing of knowledge by individuals. They also aid in socialising, creation of new knowledge, extension of personal networks and the collaboration on organizing knowledge. These tools assist personal knowledge process and satisfaction; helping people to be more effective and supporting virtual interactions and supporting knowledge sharing through user friendly collaborative tools (Ishikawa & Naka, 2007). Using these tools, people are active contributors other than passively consuming information; they even personalize the technology and tools for their use. There is another phase of knowledge management where organizations exploit better forms of knowledge assets including wikis, blogs and social networks which focus on the social collaborative aspect of Web 2.0. The different communication tools that can be found on Web 2.0 aid in the introduction of a new model of knowledge management known as Enterprise 2.0 or KM 2.0 (Jain, Phillips-Wren & Razmerita, 2016). This model strives to enhance the use of collective intelligence and therefore accelerate the spread of information. It presents innovative communication tools which improve the distribution of knowledge and knowledge workers’ collaboration. Furthermore, these tools are cheap and user friendly. This knowledge management model can increase collective intelligence by connecting knowledge mining from different communication systems and tools (Król & Nguyen, 2009). These social networking applications and websites are now vital web points for socializing and sharing personal information online. They create communities based interests by bringing users who have similar interests together. Apart from the social dimension, Web 2.0 also enables informal learning. It is estimated that between 75 and 80 percent of learning is informal while between 40 and 50 percent of employees gain knowledge and information from social media applications and sites (Wallace, 2007). Services like YouTube, Flickr, Last.fm and Del.icio.us facilitate the exchange of items of interest like business contacts, bookmarks, photos, videos and music through social networking. From the survey of the existing Web 2.0 tools, personal knowledge management tools can be classified into the following categories: Personalized web pages These enhance the organization, presentation and sharing of information. An example is Netvibes which is AJAX-based. It enables users to access their friend’s histories or their own and users with similar favourites are recommended as prospective friends. Other examples of these web pages are PageFlake, iGoogle, Shtr, Newsgator, Live.com and MyYahoo. People can create personalized web pages in these sites and subscribe to specific content through feeds and accumulating various types of information in one space. This facilitates easy and effective access to information and possible creation of knowledge. Personalized search tools These provide a platform where information can be shared and retrieved. An example is Swiki, which is a personalized search portal powered by a community. It updates its information and learns from the community’s search behaviour making it easier to access interesting information (Boughzala & Ermine, 2014). Social Bookmarking This tool offers a simple way for groups to share internet resources bookmarks. An example is Heystaks which offers a platform for the collecting, classifying and sharing search results accessed from the web. These results can be added to personal lists called stacks. It is also possible to merge lists and learn from others. This application makes the management of bookmarks a social activity. Personalized live discussion forums These aid in the analysis, presentation, sharing and evaluation of information. A good example is Tangler which makes it possible to create live discussion forums and share knowledge and information with others. Virtual Worlds These facilitate the transfer and sharing of knowledge and information. Examples are Vastpark and SecondLife which are three dimensional platforms which allow individuals to create personal virtual worlds which they can share with others. They can be used for building 3 dimension presentations, 3D gaming and crating social networks in shared worlds where people can learn, collaborate, cooperate and interact with others. Blogs and Wikis These help in the organization, editing and presentation of knowledge or information by individual users or together with others. A particular category of wikis is personal wikis where people can arrange information on their computers in a way that is similar to normal wikis. They are usually installed as stand-alone and are viewed as information managers for individuals. A good example is Pimki which incorporates search functions, to-do lists or mind maps. These Web 2.0 tools enhance enable innovative forms of interactions and knowledge sharing both at individual and group levels. This eventually helps in harnessing collective knowledge through official and unofficial communication, social networking and collaboration. Blogs, Wikis and other social networking platforms become vital tools for managing knowledge not only at individual levels but also at organizational levels (De Ville, 2001). IBM is a good example of a successful wiki and blog used by organizations. Here 15 percent of the workers have personal company-internal or public blogs and half of them regularly write over 140,000 entries in over 8000 wikis. The staff are encouraged by the company to share their knowledge with others. Donald Hislop’s Knowledge Management Perspectives According to Hislop (2009), business strategies are developed through thorough and objective analysis of the market/business environment. The results of these business strategies are then used in a structural and logical way to determine the practices of the organization. He comes up with two perspectives of knowledge which are: the objectivist perspective which suggests that knowledge is a neutral unit that can be codified into explicit details by the cognitive processes in the individual’s brain. The practice based perspective on the other hand states that knowledge is not perceived as an objective entity that can be separated from individuals but it is embedded in practice. Knowledge development is viewed as a continuous process that makes use of the whole body; it is not possible to detach practice- based knowledge from the users into the objective form. One similarity between these two perspectives is that in both, specific organizations are dominated by different types of knowledge, organizations are categorized by the different knowledge types and the knowing processes. Another similarity is that in both perspectives, attaining knowledge is a social process i.e. knowledge is created as a result of particular social procedures (Christensen, 2003). The main differences between these two types of knowledge are: One, according to the objectivist perspective, knowledge is an isolated mental entity that is possessed by individuals and organizations. On the other hand, the practice-based perspective suggests that knowledge is embedded in action, practice and interactions that take place socially. Secondly, the objectivist perspective perceives knowledge as static and structural while the process perspective (practice-based) views knowledge as a continuous process and the procedure of knowing is as much important as the knowledge itself. Thirdly, the practice-based perspective suggests that the existence of knowledge is through the interaction of the individual and the collaborative level while the objective perspective sees the existence of knowledge to be at the personal and group level. Lastly, according to the objective perspective, tacit knowledge is less privileged than explicit knowledge while in the practice-based perspective, the two types of knowledge are mutually constituted and cannot be separated. The objective perspective views sharing of explicit knowledge as an inconsequential process since this type of knowledge is seen to be objective. The sharing of tacit knowledge on the other hand is seen to be only possible when it has been enhanced with the assumption that it can be converted into explicit knowledge. The practice-based perception however does not generally support the changing of tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge (Hislop, 2009). These two perspectives have certain implications on organizations for their, organizational structures, human resource management practices, use of information and communication technology and the development of strategic assets. These parts of the organizations are influence by the form in which the knowledge they acquire and use appear to them, i.e. in explicit or tacit form. Organisational structures Companies are categorized according to their different knowledge types and the processes of getting the knowledge. This implies that both of these perspectives would affect the category within which an organization may be put. This in turn would affect the overall structure of the organization and how their processes are run. The fact that the two perspectives agree that getting knowledge is a social process implies that the different structures of the organizations will determine the kind of knowledge individuals would access judging by who they interact with in the organization. The objective perspective implies that the same knowledge would be distributed to the different parts of the organization at specific times. Individuals would get information according to their fields of work and as such, people in the same or similar fields should be put together. The practice-based perspective on the other hand implies that attaining knowledge is a continuous process through the organizational practices and procedures, knowledge gets to individuals through their actions and the actions of others, it is not sent at specific times. There is therefore no specific need to categorize employees according to their fields of work in order for them to receive information related to their work. Human Resource Management Practices The fact that both perspectives suggest that both perspectives agree that attaining knowledge is a social process implies that to be able to effectively manage the workers, there has to be interaction. They would learn from each other and retain information that is relevant to them. This would make human resource management practices easier for the practitioners since the knowledge and information would easily get to the recipients through interaction processes whether in written or verbal form. The objective perspective however implies that the human resource manager has to make rules and oversee that the employees are working to the satisfaction of the organization and their plights are also met. It assumes that knowledge is a one way process that has to take a particular structure. The human resource manager has the mandate to give the workers the knowledge they require in order to carry out their duties. The process based perspective on the other hand implies that the labour force would learn through the processes as they do their jobs. They do not need a particular person to teach or instruct them on what to do; their interactions between each other would also help them attain the required knowledge. As expected, most, if not all organizations make use of the objective perspective as they have human resource managers. Use of Information Technology The similarities in these perspectives imply that information technology is an effective tool in helping workers attain the knowledge they require through their own learning or interaction with others through modern information and communication technology tools. However, The Objectivist perspective implies that the main use of information and communication technology is used by organizations and individuals to store and distribute knowledge to others this could be through prescribed information systems and searchable data-bases. The practice-based perspective on the other hand implies that information and communication technology aids in the sharing of knowledge and information by supporting social networking sites and applications for example through virtual networking. Developing Strategic Assets The two perspectives agree that knowledge comes as a result of particular interactions. This therefore means that in order to come up with strategic assets. Different people with different knowledge and informational backgrounds have to come together in order to come up with effective strategic assets. Their interactions would bring about ideas which others may agree with, disagree with or enhance and as such, the possibly best strategic assets would be developed. The objective perspective implies that people could come up with individual ideas for the strategic assets and others would either individually support or disagree with, they are put in place before anything else is done and are to be during the start-up of a company. It also implies that the process of developing these assets should be static and take a particular structure and can only be stated and documented by individuals on a personal or group level as opposed to being a gradual process where the company learns through its processes and decide what to add and what to remove. The practice-based perspective however suggests that these assets could be developed over time as the organization continues with its processes. The knowledge is attained through trial and error. The organization can also learn from other organizations that have been in existence for a longer time than itself and work on the previous mistakes made. The practice-based perspective appears to be more practical and relevant since it gives room for wider knowledge attainment prospects, the objective view however seems to be more rigid and but seems to be the most widely used approach by organizations. In conclusion, Knowledge management can be seen as an enhancing process that transforms organizations significantly. It has helped in impacting employee behaviours, acceptance of variations, and collaborative knowledge sharing. Knowledge management perspectives are expected to exponentially gain momentum as time goes by. Information and Communication technology has significantly enhanced knowledge management and most especially for multinational corporations. The value of knowledge management would be achieved by applying the knowledge and information that comes from the overall experience of the organization. The knowledge management concept has led to the introduction of new roles and responsibilities. These roles can highly benefit from a good foundation not only from information and communication technology but also from information science. As more and more companies are transforming into knowledge-management enabled organizations, this concept will no longer be a new attractive concept that companies strive for but will become a vital ingredient for the success of any organization. This would only be achieved by the incorporation of innovative technologies that are now available to companies. As much as knowledge management was in existence before technological advancements, managing information would prove to be a very difficult task without the use of ICT. Reference List Al-Shammari, M., 2009. Customer knowledge management: people, processes, and technology. (1st Edn). Hershey: Information Science Reference. Awad, E. M., & Ghaziri, H. M., 2010. Knowledge management. (3rd Edn.) North Garden: International Technology Group Ltd. Baets, W. R. J. (2005). 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