Hawthorne Studies Experiments - Essay Example

Introduction: The Hawthorne Studies were psychological and managerial experiments conducted to gauge the reactions of the labourers to the changes introduced in their environment. The experiments were conducted at one of the largest manufacturing establishments of its time, Hawthorne Works by some of the most eminent scholars, business professors and engineers. The experiments were conducted to gauge the motivational factors behind efficient displays of works, the effective styles of communication, and the ways of turning all energy of the workers into positive output. While the experiments were conducted there were specific environment changes set out by the experimentalists but the results were not hypothesized before the initiating of the experiments. The Studies were targeted at gauging the factors that influence the output of the workers and by maintaining and creating changes in the variables of the environment, the observers wanted to present theories regarding human behaviour and the best managerial policies for optimum output. The Hawthorne Effect is used as a basis for the many different reactions showed by people at large and different schools of psychology have taken up the experiments and its result for explaining their theories, however the experiments were initially conducted with a narrow frame of circumstances and the results drawn out were on the basis of the constricted experiments. Hawthorne Works: Built by the Western Electronics, the Hawthorne Works was a huge factory complex that was initiated in 1905 and continued its productions till 1983. More than ten miles of railway tracks, around forty thousand employees at its peak and with a claim to have produced more than forty three thousand varieties of the telephone apparatus, (Weber, 2002) the Hawthorne works was unique and one of the biggest factory presenting great innovations in the products that it produced. “The world’s first high-vacuum tube was manufactured at the plant in 1913. The facility pioneered the condenser microphone in 1916 and air-to-ground communications in 1917. In 1919, Western Electric gave the desktop telephone its first dial. A few years later, it created the first successful sound system for the movie industry. During World War II, Western Electric produced advanced radar systems. Postwar products included electronic telephone switching systems, mobile telephone systems and microwave radio relay communication systems.” (Ibid.) Austin Weber also goes on to explain that this was one of the first factories to implement quality controls on their products on the largest scale and around five thousand personnel of the factory concentrated on assessing the quality of the produced products. The establishment was therefore great enough to provide a conducive atmosphere for the managerial psychology experiments to be conducted. The factory was demolished in the id-1980s. Hawthorne Experiments: The Hawthorne experiments were conducted in four stages during which a series of experiments were conducted with the employees of the Hawthorne Works. The experiments, the conditions in which they were conducted as well as the deduced results have been alternately highly praised and greatly criticised. The experiments started under the guidance of Vannevar Bush, an electrical engineer, wanted to study the results of greater illumination on the work produced by the labourers. The results did not produce any sharp decline or great increase in productivity. However, it was noted that each time there was a change in illumination level the output of the workers increased and gradually came back to the normal level. The results of these Illumination Experiments were much unexpected since they did not yield any definite results. This forced the experimenters to continue their tests to find out which of the variables in the environment actually positively impact the work force producing positive output. Between 1927 and 1932 Harvard University professors Elton Mayo and Fritz Roethlisberger undertook the next phase of the test that was known as the Relay Assembly Test Room Experiments. They chose two women who in their turn chose four others and were taken to a separate room. Over the course of the five years, the experimenters changed many variables to gauge the factors that were affecting the performance of the employees. They were paid for group productions, depending on how much output they were able to give working collectively and as a team. At such times it was even noted that without the presence of an outside disciplinary force, they were able to keep up with the schedules and production levels by maintaining performance amongst themselves. The workers were also tested through breaks that were of minutes given twice a day, and then later were of ten minutes, which resulted in increased productivity. However, another increase in the frequency of the breaks resulted in a decline in productions. The next experiment in the series that was undertaken by Elton Mayo and W. Lloyd Warner was between 1931 and 1932 in which the subject was a group of fourteen men. In this instance, the workers were paid according to their individual performance. However, it was noted that the workers maintained an average of production and did not cross into either the lower zone or the upper zone. As a team, the group neither let individuals work better, nor let them fail the daily output levels. Effects of Hawthorne Experiments: Although, the Hawthorne Effects have been generalized over the years and have been made too apply on all different kinds of psychological theories, originally, they are a number of experiments carried out to gauge the positive effects of different variables and better working conditions on a labour force. Typically, there have been various reactions and opinions about the Hawthorne Effects. “To the surprise of the researchers, every innovation had the effect of increasing productivity.” (Wrightsman, Deaux, 1997). “Almost no matter what experimental conditions were imposed, increases in output occurred….The investigators had obviously influenced the subjects’ behavior merely by studying that behavior, and this phenomenon has become known as the Hawthorne effect.” (Shaver, 1981) The effects of the Hawthorne Experiments almost always yielded positive results. They were given breaks of five minutes in their long schedules, resulting in an increase in the output. The breaks were made ten minutes each giving same results. They were provided longer breaks, resulting in an hourly increased output but lesser overall output due to a decrease in the working hours. The output increased when the illumination increased and with every consequent change, there were positive results yielded. Likewise the communicative environment as well as a friendly manager resulted in a positive outcome, however, the absence of a manger altogether also resulted in a better output. It was even observed that a return to all the normal and original circumstances, yielded growth in productivity. “In fact, even when conditions were returned to what they had been before, productivity remained 25 percent above its original value.” (Weber, 2002) The concluding observations of all those involved in the endeavour of the Hawthorne Experiments were that the workers responded positively to all the changes that were brought about in their environment and this conclusion, on its own became a challenge to coming experimentalists. Hawthorne Studies: The experiments conducted at the Hawthorne Works were a landmark in them and provided an observation of a cross-section of the work force. The Hawthorne Experiments had their own unique effects and the whole process came to be recognized as the Hawthorne Studies. They led the observers to realize the value of communication within the workers as well as with the management. Also the feeling that was provided to the workers by taking their advices and keeping them continuously updated was regarded as a great reason for the positive outcome. About the Relay Assembly experiments, Elton Mayo himself reflected that “the six individuals became a team and the team gave itself wholeheartedly and spontaneously to cooperation in the experiment.” (Mayo, 1993) Some of the Basic observations that were gleaned from the series of experiments were, “1. An organization is not a machine but a social system made up of people, wit all their hopes fears, envy, desires, and needs. 2. Noneconomic rewards have as much bearing on productivity as economic rewards. Friendship and collegiality are important parts of the job. 3. Productivity cannot be achieved simply through the direction of the management but requires concurrence by the worker group in the form of social norms. 4. Workers cannot always control decisions about their work. Groups make decisions about jobs, and sometimes these group decisions may not confirm with those of the formal organization.” (Raelin, 1988) The studies therefore set in motion the Human Relations Movement as the positive output was seen as an extension of compassion and individual attentions to the labour force. Other Opinions: While some scholars went straight against the notions presented in the Hawthorne Effects, there were many who hailed the idea and particularly emphasised its humanitarian aspect. The School of Human Relation have gleaned more comprehensive meanings of the Hawthorn Studies and their foundations have been based on the ideas propounded through the observations (Ibid.) However there are other scholars who have argued that the experiments resulted just as a neutral pill will result in a medical experiment. The workers were aware of the fact that experiments are being conducted and their slight changes in output at any level were due to this awareness. Stephen R. G. Jones regards it as “a form of placebo effect” (Jones, 1992) that had almost no effect on the workings of any of the individuals that were held for experiments for the period of five years. He argues in his article that the only effect was that there was an awareness created in these individuals which was enhanced each time that the altering conditions were discussed with the, therefore, each time there was a resultant better output of the experiment. Thus in so far as the alterations of the variables such as break and lessened hours were concerned they did not have any effect on the worker’s output. Also, when the working hours were lessened dramatically, they simply resulted in a lessening of output which is an indicator that although the workers were motivated by the changes taking place and by the greater liberty allowed to them, they were not able to make up for the lack of working hours. Elton Mayo concluded (Mayo, 1993) that the aptitudes of individuals are not such a significant part of the productivity spectrum at a factory. He derived from his experiments that the social factors are as much or in fact more responsible for the growth of productivity at a particular establishment. The productivity level at any manufacturing unit therefore depended on the social factors involved. He discovered that the group life amongst the body of workers was what influenced positivity. The harmony was responsible for the productivity growth in a way that economic factors could not have been. When the individuals were to be rewarded on the basis of their own work and productivity, they developed a certain level of output and by group coercions they maintained that level, going neither below it nor above it. Therefore they maintained on average, equal salaries for their performances. A distinguished industrial psychologist, McIlvaine Parsons, recently studies the experiments again and came to the conclusion that in the presence of friendly supervisors instead of authoritative managers and in a secluded experiment room, it was plausible that the workers would have produced a better yield. He also came to the conclusion that the sample population, aware of being given special attention was acting out of a sense of self-importance and not being part of a general experiment being conducted to gauge better performances. The Pattern of Hawthorne Studies: The Hawthorne Studies are hailed as effective experiments and as foundations for humanitarian aspects of the management that were earlier not recognized under the scientific approach. It is argued that the workers were seen as a n extension of the machinery and when they realized that they were a part of an experiment as well as playing a positive role in the study of human behaviours, they followed the instructions or the ideals of the experiment with a positive approach. They yielded as much enthusiasm as they could and therefore any and all kinds of changes in the variables resulted in optimum output. The workers were allowed to have bonding between them and they formed a group of close association as observed by Elton Mayo. Therefore, it can be easily deduced that while a lot of factors were kept changing and moving, there could have been at the same time a lot of other factors that were affecting the results of these experiments. The pattern of the studies was also marred by the very obviousness of experiments. The workers and the sample population for the test were aware all the time that they were being used for experiments. They were also continuously kept aware of the output and differences in their performances. The changes that were to be introduced were also always discussed with the employees thus giving them space and time to react to the changes that were to be introduced. This particular pattern of the conducting of the Hawthorne Experiments was not conducive, specially keeping in view the behavioural experiments conducted nowadays. The Effectiveness of the Studies: It can be fairly deduced that while the experiments were conducted to gauge the efficiency of the work force and factors that would positively influence the output, they hypothesis required for conducting a scientific experiment were not established. With the illumination experiments at the start of the series, the observers simply set out to deduce the many factors that would affect workers. As is obvious by the planning of the Studies and by the opinions of different scholars, the workers’ awareness of an experiment being conducted through them might have done the required trick and produced better yields. As was also observed even the return to normal circumstances gave a twenty five percent better yield to the manufactured goods. Therefore, it can be deduced that the Hawthorne studies have been blown out of proportions, as they have merely suggested that human communications and imparting values to individuals will go a long way in bringing about positive results. Since no other social factors such as economic crisis at large, job insecurities, harassment issues or any other such factors were never a part of the experiments being conducted, the Studies simply showed the influence of social communications on the workers. Since the sample of people chosen for the test also remained the same for the whole time period of the experiments, this also contributed to the narrow results of the experiments. The results of the experiments were not properly gauged as well and much later after the Bank Wiring experiment did the observers realize that the economic incentives failed to motivate the workers. As is again explained “Regardless of the conditions, whether there were more or fewer rest periods, longer or shorter workdays…the women worked harder and more efficiently. Although this effect was probably due to several reasons, the most important was that the women felt they were something special…that they were expected to perform exceptionally. The were happy, a lot of attention was paid to them, and they complied with what they thought the experimenter (their boss) wanted.” (Freedman, 1981) Conclusions: While the Hawthorne Experiments were considered landmark achievements for experimenters of the period, they lacked the certain goal and clear vision of a scientific experiment. Conducted in different series under different professors, they aimed at finding how to combat fatigue and waywardness of factory employees. The series of experiments conducted over a period of five years however, was much limited in its scope, due to narrow sample population, lack of clear hypothesis as well as a lack of the workers reactions. The awareness of being part of experiments as well as seclusion from actual factory environment might have produced a lot of the positive influences that were not taken into account. It was also due to the lack of a controlled environment that is a basic need of scientific experiments that the results yielded through the Hawthorne Experiments were vague and scattered. The experimenters failed to pinpoint what exact variables that was at work behind the greater output and positive behaviour of the workers. The internal and external factors were mostly all left to vacillate and therefore the study of five years was not able to yield clear results. A lot of the results gleaned form the Hawthorne Experiments might be applicable only to factory workers and can not be implemented on salaried individuals. Most of the results and observations don’t hold true for workers as well, since the workers will not be working in an experiment and will not have the sense of self worth that was available to the sample population of the Hawthorne Experiments. As a study of Human behaviour, the Hawthorne Studies were inadequate and the importance attached to their results is misleading for the managerial, psychological and behavioural sciences. Word count: 2673 Bibliography: Freedman, Jomnathan, 1981, Social Psychology, Prentice Hall. Jones, Stephen R. G., 1992, “Was there a Hawthorne Effect?”, American Journal of Sociology: 98, 451-68. Mayo, Elton, 1933, The human problems of an industrial civilization, MacMillan, New York. Raelin, Joseph A., 1988, The Clash of Cultures, Harvard Business Press. Shaver, Kelly, 1981, Principles of Social Psychology, Winthrop, London. Weber, Austin, 2002, “The Hawthorne Works”, Assembly Magazine, August 1. Wrightsman, Lawrence S. and Deaux, Kay, 1977, Social Psychology, Brooks/Cole Pub, Michigan. Read More