Effects of Social Capital - Essay Example

Social Capital Lecture: Student Name: Student ID: Date: INTRODUCTION Social capital refers to relationships, beliefs/norms and institutions that mold the merit and quantum of social interactions in a society. Social coherence plays a very vital role in economic prosperity and sustained development in the society[Wal03]. Social networks have value in social capital. Social capital is the aggregate value of the social networks and the propensity that come up from these social networks to reciprocate. Social capital specifically is the economic benefits reaped from the reciprocities cooperation between groups and individuals. Social capital put emphasis on specific benefits that accrue from confidence, mutuality, knowledge and collaboration that arise from the social networks. Social capital brings benefit to people who share a notional link. Flow of knowledge about something relies on social capital norms of mutual aid and also depends on social networks. Social capital The current emergence of social capital thought changed the intellectual attention for previous argument in the study of social science, which is the link existing between belief or trust, social networks and the development of modern industrial society. The integration of sociological theory with the explanation of intangible resources has made social capital gain more significance. Researchers have given a fusion between the benefit held by the communitarian approaches and individualism as stated in the rational choice theory[Por09]. Social capital is created cooperatively by the communities and or social groups, however, individuals and social groups can utilize it at the same time. Social capital can be utilized by individuals in their social networks to achieve their personal objectives and groups exploit it to push for definite norms or behaviors. Communitarians and individualism are linked together in social capital because social capital is generated collectively, but it can be used individually to satisfy their private goals. Empirical studies have shown that there are differences in social capital in terms of the manner used to address it[Sch09]. Different studies assess social capital in terms of either density of the social network or purely on the measure of trust. Other studies have assessed social capital integrating a measure of network density and norms of the group. Social capital might lose its sole meaning if purely networked-based measure and purely norms-based measure are used. Horizontal associations in social capital This is a narrow view of social capital. It is concerned with the cooperation between people belonging to a social network that share norms that have an effect on economic productivity and the well-being of the society in general. There is increased productivity in social network because of the considerably low cost of doing business that is brought into existence by the cooperation and coordination. Social capital benefits cannot be achieved if local communities, networks or groups are secluded, narrow-minded, or working in their own interests which are contrary to collective interests of the society, for example illegal drugs business and corruption. Vertical and horizontal associations in social capital A clear depiction of social capital is accounts for positive as well as negative aspects including both horizontal and vertical associations that exist between people, which include the behavior that is within the organization and among the organizations[Tho12]. Horizontal associations are important because it enables communities to have a sense of identity and a common goal. Pursuits of narrow interests can be eradicated by reducing the gap in social divides, for example ethnicity and religion to pave the way for information and resources to flow freely to the benefit of the community. Homogeneous versus heterogeneous organizations The internal diversity of groups is of substance for social capital and economic well being. The study of villages in Tanzania which was proven by Narayan and Pritchett’s (1997), and the study of villages in Indonesia which was carried out by Groomer’s (1998) reveals that the internal diversity of groups is of substance for both social capital as well as for economic well being[Ehr08]. An index for social capital in household level was realized by multiplying numbers of associational memberships by internal heterogeneity of relations, and their extent of activities and it was realized to be positively consistent with household economic wellbeing. In contrary to this, Portney and Berry (1998) did a research on five American cities and made a wrapping up that compared to social, service, self-help and issue based organizations, it is the chipping in locality associations that are more powerfully connected with a lofty intellect of community and public commitment[Wal03]. Effective neighborhood links are created from more homogeneous neighborhoods. In concluding on the two groups, groups with high diversity levels in homogenous cultures are much more trust producing. Homogenous groups create more comprehensive belief, which is contrary to the one that put community of varied backgrounds. Political and social environment Social and political environment mold the structure of social capital and empower the development of norms. This view extends its value to structures and relationships in formal institutions, for example, government, political order, rules of law and systems of the court. This analysis accounts for advantages and disadvantages of social capital as well as the importance of cooperation and integration across communities and also recognizes the capabilities of different social groups to perform to their best critically depends on the support that these groups get from the government and the private sector[Ehr08]. The government on the other hand relies on social stability and extensive public support. This means that economic and social development prosper when there is a bonding integration to engage in common goals between the government, corporate sector and the civil society. Negative social capital Social capital does not always bring positive effects. Complexities in effects of social capital have brought about negative social capital, for instance a gang of criminals that is encouraged through strengthening intra-group relationships. Bonding social capital is necessary in order to achieve a stronger group hence making the achievement of goals to be easier. Bridging on the other hand increases social capital. Bonding and bridging of social capital is productive if integrated in such a way that a balance is strike. Methodologies for measuring social capital It is desirable or even perhaps not possible to obtain a unified measure of social capital even though it has been estimated in various innovative methods. This disparity is brought about because of 1, definition of social capital which is several dimensions, putting together different levels and units of examination. 2, It is very difficult to come up with a unified measurement of props of intrinsic uncertain notions such as organization, community and network. 3, Many researchers who have attempted to measure social capital have compiled indexes basing on many approximate items, for example in measuring the government trust, citizen's trend of voting. It is possible to calculate social capital through it may seem difficult. Application of different types and combinations that have been established by successful studies such as quantitative method, qualitative method and comparative methods is discussed below. Quantitative methodology This methodology applies the trend of civic social behavior and trust. It uses these civic associations in coming up with two diverse opinions and judgments on the effects brought about by social capital on the growth of the economy. Narayan and Pritchett (1997) applied this methodology in measuring social capital in the rural areas of Tanzania using data from social capital and poverty survey. This survey asked respondents on their characteristics and scope of activities that they perform as an association, and also the extent of trust they place on various institutions and other members of the social group. These researchers then paired their findings on the measure of social capital with the household data of income in the same rural areas. Their findings were that the level of income of households rose with the level of rural area social capital. Tempele and Johson (1998) found out that there is a notable variation in amounts of national rates of growth after carrying out a research in sub-Saharan African countries on the density of social networks basing on ethnic differences, mobility of the society and the telephone services prevailing in the region. Comparative methodology Putnam (1993) did a research comparing north Italy to south Italy. He investigated social capital basing on the extent of civic participation in voter turnout trends, level of trust in public institutions, trends in reading newspapers and belonging to memberships such as football clubs and choirs. He found out that all indicators were higher in northern Italy and performed better than southern Italy in aspects such as good governance, good performance in public institutions and economic development. Another researcher Porters (1995) did an investigation on the economic status of different communities migrating to USA. They found out that certain particular groups were performing better than others simply because of the communities' social structures leading to new arrivals of immigrants. Fortunate communities are capable of assisting new immigrants to get financial assistance, insurance covers, and child supportive, training in languages and jobs seeking. Unfortunate communities showed a short-term engagement to the country hosting them and are less capable to support their members with the basic services. Espinosa and Masey (1997) investigated on migration of Mexicans to USA. They found out that due to the free flow of goods and services policy across national boundaries have increased the flow of people because goods and services are generated[Lou06], dispensed and consumed by people. Analyzing data from interviews and surveys shows that social capital is a good forecast of the destination of immigrants, how many immigrants, and reasons for migrating. Qualitative methodology An investigation on the outcomes of immigrant communities when some of their community members prosper economically, and desire to depart the community, was carried out by Sensenbrenner and Porter (1993) basing on this methodology. Their findings revealed that the members of the community are held by the strong community ties that they will not consider leaving the rest of the community members[Lou]. Evidence is drawn from Gold (1995) which he carried an investigation Jewish communities living in Los Angeles and found out that they were able to obey the community structure and jointly participated in improving their economic development. Another research carried out by Fernandez-Kelley (1996) in urban slum communities in Baltimore on young girls revealed that pressure to leave school, bear a child before marriage, and refusal to join formal employment were very immense. These girls are facing a lot of challenges, for example, violence, hunger, unemployment and use of hard drugs have made them seek their dignity using their bodies[Ehr08]. A study by Anderson (1995) on the role of the elderly members of the poor black American community and their part in sources of social capital reveals that elderly members of the community used to give guidance to the young because they were seen as source of wisdom, but their guidance, and advice are being rejected as young people continue to disrespect them and also the community is continually segment economically. Heller (1996) carried out an investigation in South India, where the ability to read and write, long life, and infant death rates has been encouraging over time in India. These results are attributed to a critical role played by the government by enabling an environment where social groups can collectively achieve their interests. The government, however, have strict policies on foreign investors, and they are properly maintaining the infrastructure, this has made the country lag behind in education and economically. Tools of measurement in social capital Evidence reveals that social capital can lead to reduction in poverty rates and increased levels of sustainable economic developments. It has triggered recognition of relevant methods and tools for social capital. Challenges encountered in social capital tools and measurement It is posing a challenge because social capital has concepts which are difficult to measure, for example network, trust, and community[Bri09]. The challenge increases when one does the research basing on the quantity and also quality of social capital in various levels. Researchers are trying to come up with methods and tools to measure social capital both in quantity and quality so that it can assist policymakers in improving the existing social capital and also to come up with new social capital which will transform the poor peoples' lives positively. Social capital in relation to women's participation in politics Factors such as level of education, employment levels, level of civil skills are the major factors that determine the voting trends. Basing on evaluation of these factors women do not vote in the same level as men. Over the years this gap is gradually reducing and in most cases women have been seen in large numbers turning out for voting. Research has shown that social capital is contributing to these changes. Social capital facilitates networks and wealth that enable women to engage in politics. Social capital is available in all communities and it has expelled the traditional view of politics especially among women. Women organize themselves in an exclusive manner which has transformed their political views[Add05]. Some of the reasons that have promoted women participation in politics include the following: Women group themselves in both formal and informal settings with the sole purpose of caring for one another and this is considered political in most cases. Local politics and social movements are the main areas that women are probable to slot in, which is contrary to usual forums and state politics. Women focus on building harmony in their groups rather than focusing on authority and leadership of these groups. Informal social capital of women gives them an opportunity to establish a political environment without following the men’s standards of politics. These differences are hard to be easily identified within the dissertation of political commitment and this may be a reason why social capital has not been considered a tool for women political engagement until recently. Effects of social capital on health Research reveals that availability of social capital in the course of social networks and communities has a shielding superiority on wellbeing. Risk behaviors influenced by social capital in the logic that persons who are linked to a network or society affluent in social faith, support, information and norms, possess resources that assist in achieving health objective. For instance a person suffering from AIDS may receive guidance and counseling, money, information and even moral support that will enable him/her to live longer. Social capital promotes membership and social faith. These factors form norms that discourage bad health behaviors, for example drug and substance abuse in the community or social network. In contrary, short of social capital can harm good health. For instance, research on thirteen to eighteen year old students in Sweden revealed that low social trust and capital result in high rates of mental and emotional disorders and depression. Furthermore, negative social capital can lead to bad health. Social capital has negative consequence on broken communities. Bad peers inflict bad behaviors to the rest of the members. Nevertheless alteration of norms for example, awful peers being replaced with excellent peers can pose positive effect. Reference List Wal03: , (Walzer, 2003), Por09: , (Portes, 2009), Sch09: , (Schecter, 2009), Tho12: , (Thomson, 2012), Ehr08: , (Ehrenhalt, 2008), Lou06: , (Loury G. , 2006), Lou: , (Loury G. &., 2009), Bri09: , (Briggs, 2009), Add05: , (Association, 2005), Read More

 

Read More