Recruitment and Selection in the Volunteer Sector - Literature review Example

Contents Introduction 2 Key terminologies 3 Concept 5 Theoretical literature review 6 Empirical Literature review 9 Conclusion 12 References 13 Introduction Not for profit are commonly referred to as charities where the largest portion of the workforce are volunteers (Wyner & Starnes, 2001). Volunteers are said to be a critical human resource for many nonprofit organizations (Karl, et al., 2008). While nonprofits have traditionally depended on volunteers in lieu of paid employees, public organizations are now also increasingly adding such workers to their ranks (Brudney, 1999). People usually show their direct support for a nonprofit’s cause by giving their time and/or their money, in activities such as fundraising, administration and supporting duties (Wyner & Starnes, 2001). Official United Kingdom statistics published by the Cabinet office show that the proportion of people volunteering at least once a year has now increased from 65% in 2010 to 2011 to 71% in 2012, with an even bigger increase in the proportion of people volunteering regularly (Gov.Uk, 2013). In the few countries where volunteer work has been empirically studied, the economic contributions to Gross Domestic Product by families that involved themselves in volunteering activites was $1339 (Wyner & Starnes, 2001, p. 62). Nonprofit organizations deal with two constituencies: the clients to whom they provide services, and those from whom they receive resources (donors and volunteers) (Woods, 2006, p. 13) .One of the most distinctive features of the nonprofit sector is its voluntary nature (Rehnborg, et al., 2009, p. 3). Therefore this has resulted to a vast sector of volunteerism. The term volunteerism is defined using classic volunteers “whose motivations are three-fold: doing something worthwhile, personal satisfaction, and helping others to the act of taking up volunteer work in community service“ (Randle & Dolnicar, 2012, p. 4). It has necessitated a solid structure in which recruitment and selection of volunteers is undertaken in the ‘not for profit’ organizations (Madsen, 1997). This literature review seeks to understand strategies being used to attract volunteers and new strategies that can be adopted to attract them in the not for profit organizations. It will also give a deeper insight into the recruitment and selection process that includes; tools, selection methods, resourcing cycle of the selection process, statistics of variation in the recruitment process and causes of variation in the selection methods. In addition, a critical analyses of studies and theories relating to the theme of the study. Key terminologies The key terminologies of this literature review include volunteerism, recruitment and selection process. They are briefly discussed below to introduce an insight into the main concept of the literature review. a. Volunteerism Statistics show that over 8,000 young people, in 2011 took part in government sponsored volunteering programs in the United Kingdom, which equated to 700,000 hours of social action completed (Gov.Uk, 2013). This is an indication that volunteerism is a big sector. The concept, volunteerism, includes formal and informal volunteering; however for the purpose of this review we will consider only formal volunteering since informal volunteering according to Egerton & Mullan (2008), it takes place as a form of private interactions. For instance, caring for a loved one. The term formal volunteering, according to Department for Communities and Local Government (2010), has been defined as giving unpaid help through groups, clubs or organizations to benefit other people or the environment, while informal as giving unpaid help as an individual to non-relatives. Hence it is important to stress that the choice is freely made. The concept has not been without its confusion in definition as it has often been mistaken with individual volunteering which comes with obligation; For instance; in caring for a family member or friend. “Volunteering is part of a cluster of helping behaviours, entailing more commitment than spontaneous assistance, but narrower in scope than the care provided by family and friends’’ (Wilson, 2000, p. 215). While there has not been a consensual agreement on one definition, there are three points that commonly arise. These include: free will to take up the activity, no remuneration and public benefit. (Tereza, 2011). However, the very points are so often the cause of conciseness in definition. This is seen as follows: Free choice and Obligation One of the key words in defining volunteerism is free choice i.e. the free willingness without any due influence to undertake an activity for the benefit of others. Volunteering is usually thought of as unpaid work undertaken willingly for the benefit of others (Ruth, et al., 2006). Conversely, there are many instances that volunteerism has borne with it an obligation; for example an individual who takes up volunteerism as a path into the labour market or a student volunteering as part of their coursework (Tereza, 2011). These instances create an undefined line in the definition of free choice in volunteering (Tereza, 2011). Compensated and Unpaid of volunteer activities. While volunteerism is commonly defined and characterized by no compensation, a range of methods have been adopted to compensate for volunteers efforts such as reimbursement of travelling expenses. Remuneration of volunteers has been a major topic for discussion for a long time as different scholars are of the opinion that remuneration undermines the real substance and meaning of volunteering (Tereza, 2011). Public benefit & personal interest Volunteering provides a way for individuals to connect with local, national and international communities and opens pathways for personal growth and skills development (Commonwealth of Australia, 2011). In the past, organizations may have operated under the assumption that the only reasons for volunteering were altruistic or intrinsic in nature (Madsen, 1997). Dekker and Halman (2003) defined voluntary as one that includes provision of public benefits. Consequently, it leads to exclusion of a great deal of ‘volunteering as leisure’ in clubs and associations which are seen as benefiting their members rather than delivering public benefit. b. ‘Not for profit’ organization A not for profit organization has been defined by The United Nations Handbook (2003) on ‘Non for profit institutions in the system of National Accounts’, as a self-governing organizations with voluntary membership, which re-invests all its earnings into the organizations core mission (The United Nations Handbook, 2003, p. 4-5,15-20). In such organizations, there can be many or very few volunteers (Tereza, 2011). . c. Recruitment and selection process Successful marketers in the volunteer sector understand the importance of serving their volunteers better than their competitors and it is critical that they understand their volunteers and what their needs or motives are for volunteering (Karl, et al., 2008). Recruitment and selection process involves strategies such as advertising in social media, the internet and public service announcements. This is done through the human resources department in the organization. Concept There are also a number of related concepts which describe new kinds of relationships between people/communities and local public services (Mundle, et al., 2012). One of the concepts is the act of devoting ones time to help better someone’s life. Formal volunteering has been defined differently as previously discussed by (Tereza, 2011) and (Wilson, 2000). For this study, the following definition; “…Volunteering is a form of unpaid work and traditionally means “any activity in which time is given freely to benefit another person, group, or organisation...” (Wilson, 2000, p. 215) As a result it has necessitated different recruitment and selection strategies, to be adopted by ‘not for profit’ organizations. Human resource is fundamental to the success of any organization as identified by Letts, Ryan and Grossman (1999). While Recruitment and selection process of human resource is found in both for profit and ‘not for profit’ organizations; they specifically held that it is necessary that ‘not for profit’ organizations shift their view of human resource practices into a strategic issue. In fact, volunteers are the backbone of ‘not for profit’ organizations and these organizations need to manage how they fit and interact in the program. Therefore, they need to adopt strategies which attract volunteers to increase their effectiveness. Even the biggest development organizations in the world such as the United Nations use volunteers from all around the world to increase their effectiveness (Robin, 2013). With the evolution of the volunteer sector, the question that still remains open is what other strategies, other than the traditional ones, can be utilized to effectively attract volunteers? Theoretical literature review Role identity theory There are several theories that scholars have come up with on why people volunteer. A famous quote says people make a living through what they get, but make a life through giving (Morton, n.d). Role identity theory is one of the many theories behind explaining volunteerism which states that a person has multiple identities that are formed through interactions and expectations (Finkelstien, 2009). The delivery of benefits, in volunteering is more likely to be of a non-material kind; these intrinsic include a sense of achievement, self-actualization, and quality of working life (Lynch & Smith, 2009). Functional Motivational theory This theory is based on the persuasion and attitude theories. Herbert and others (2001) in their book “Persuasion in society” defines persuasion concept as seeking to alter the way others think, feel, or act, persuasive communication is one of the strategies that can be used for encouraging volunteerism (Herbert, et al., 2001). In the olden days, rhetoric training and oration were a big part of persuasion. According to Alexander et al. (2001) ‘’Plato, an idealist, together with his student, Aristotle, believed that persuasion art could be learned’’ (Alexander et al., 2001, cited in Ajzen, 1988). In simpler terms, functional theory means many volunteers engage in volunteer service to fulfil distinct psychological and altruistic functions and also, given roles to match their skills and interests (Wilson, 2000). The main goal of volunteerism to different people is because it fulfils specific psychological functions. Stukas, Snyder and Clary (1999) in their journal of applied social psychology identified that an individual will always continue to volunteer once they start, on condition that their motivational concerns are fulfilled. It is for this reason that the theory is an important aspect for the human resource to incorporate when choosing the best method and tools of recruitment and selection. Social integration theory The motivations for volunteering are many-faceted (Bathini & Vohra, 2014, p. 1). According to this theory, individuals engage in voluntary activities as a means to broaden their social interactions and strengthen relationships with other people (Akingbola, 2013, p. 973). Society gives one a sense of belonging. For instance, an individual will volunteer with an aim to meet their friends and new friends. This theory can be categorized as a three-dimensional model of motivation as it involves altruistic, material and social motives. Altruistic motives stresses on a desire to help others or do something to benefit society or the community; a sense of duty or obligation to reciprocate for services received by friends or family members; personal development or career enhancement; the desire to feel useful, productive, or to occupy spare time; and social rewards (Karl, et al., 2008). In designing the best strategy to attract volunteer, all dimensions of motivation must be encompassed in order to get maximum value from the volunteers (Madsen, 1997). The question that arises from this theory is whether there exist any differences in gender helping. The social role theory tries to give an insight into this question. Social role theory of helping Eagly & Crowley (1986) argued that male and female are structured to volunteer in different ways. The social role theory of helping has two implications which are greatly supported by different studies. The first implication states that most women volunteers get involved in long-term helping pattern and that they outnumber men in volunteer force is the second implication (Switzer et al., 1999). Nevertheless, this implications are not always true in all populations. A study by Penner (2000) and Finkelstein (2009) demonstrated that in a population of AIDS volunteers, men scored higher in altruistic functions than did women. There are other numerous theories of volunteerism and recruitment strategy in the voluntary field including the activity theory and the human capital theory. Empirical Literature review ‘‘There has been some debate around whether the issue of volunteer recruitment is a human resources issue (a problem of employment) or a marketing issue (a problem of consumer attraction)’’ (Randle & Dolnicar, 2012, p. 4). The most successful ‘not for profit’ organizations are the ones that incorporate different avenues to attract volunteers through their human resource departments. Statistics have shown that people are always willing to volunteer. A Red Cross poll carried out in the year 2011 showed that 68% of Americans expressed a desire to donate to charities; a 10% increase from the previous year (American RedCross, 2011). Nevertheless, the scope and focus of workplace volunteer efforts depends considerably on the family status and age of the volunteer with the number of hours volunteered depending on number and ages of individual in a household (Nesbi & Gazley, 2011). It has been critical for ‘not for profit’ organizations to understand the demographics in the volunteer sector and what motivates them. The apt recruitment strategies should market the needs of the organization to those who are best suited to feel those needs while meeting their needs (Meinhard, 2006). Discussed below is a review on recruitment strategies that are being adopted by the volunteer sector. Internet Use and Social Media One of the ways that have been currently adopted is publicity to communicate opportunities and needs in the organization for volunteers (IECA Leadership Training, n.d). With a fast tech savvy population especially among young people and baby boomers; it has become critical for organizations to use Information and Communications Technology in attracting volunteers. Butcher (2009) from the University of Massachusetts-Dartmouth substantiates the widespread use of social media by ‘not for profits’ and mentions the power of word-of-mouth and peer approval when choosing ‘not for profits’ for various reasons, a concept that naturally transfers to the realm of social media. Social media is also favourable because it has a human voice and can foster interactions. Moreover it allows for real-time feedback. The International Communication Association carried, (2013) out a content analysis on existing profiles which revealed calls for volunteers were few on the social media profiles. A report carried out by Community Philanthropy Action survey in 2009, by Ogden & Starita, (2009), examined volunteer rates as part of the study and found that 58% of those asked to volunteer through social media actually did (Ogden & Starita, 2009, p. 4). However, social media platform should not be used to do away with the old strategies but to complement them. Virtual Volunteering Virtual volunteering is one strategy that has caught up as society is increasingly using Information and Communications Technology. The volunteer’s tasks are under taken at home through online, channels. This may be attractive for persons with information technology skills, who want to volunteer, and who prefer to serve the organization online (The Virtual Volunteering Project, 2000). This has concentrated on the need to use the new technology to recruit and retain volunteers (Evans & Saxton, 2005). This would indeed appeal to those volunteers who are already used to working virtually or have terminal illnesses. This has also been seeing as providing a platform for globalisation on both local and international level. Episodic Volunteering Episodic volunteering is also another way to effectively attract volunteers that is being adopted by ‘not for profit’ organizations. It has been seen people are volunteering their time differently based on their attitudes as they seek short term work that taps their skills and interests and has impact (Peterson, 2004) .This change in volunteer engagement that involves them devoting fewer hours in huge numbers has great implication to the organization. Consequently, it has necessitated organizations to offer a platform to appeal to these new trends of volunteerism. In a study done by the United Kingdom government (2011) “Twenty-five per cent of people reported that they volunteered formally at least once a month in April-December 2010, a lower rate than at any point between 2001 and 2007-08 (when it was between 27% and 29%), although unchanged from 2008-09 and 2009-10”(Civil Society and Social Innovation Unit UK, 2011, p. 37). Nevertheless, despite the increase in episodic volunteer over traditional long-term commitment, there is little tangible evidence to show as seen by researchers and other commentators. The following is an illustration of the difference between the number of people who volunteer episodically and those who volunteer regularly in England. Figure 1.1 Source: Office for National Statistics: Department for Communities and Local Government, p.23. Youth involvement Change does not come easily to many of us and especially in organizations that may depend heavily on “brand” recognition, having a well-established place in community or beloved traditions (Volunteer canada, 2001). Involving the youth in voluntary activities today has become popular. For instance, one fifth of 7.5 million Canadian volunteers are the youthful individuals (Volunteer canada, 2001). ’Not for profit’ organizations are utilizing this strategy as the rewards of involving them are quite plentiful. Conclusion When prospects decline invitations to volunteer, the recruiter must make a judgment (Wyner & Starnes, 2001). We cannot conclusively say which are the most effective methods to adopt by ‘not for profit’ organizations to attract volunteers. This is because different strategies as seen are structured to attract different demographic groups. However some of the strategies adopted are seen as underutilized or ineffectively applied. However, we cannot dismiss its role in attracting volunteers as seen from the Philanthropic 2.0 study (2009) in which 58% of those reached through social media took up volunteer. As discussed and noted in both empirical and theoretical literature review, volunteer time is seemingly little to spare and constantly competing with volunteers working hours. As a result, the effect is that volunteers need an environment where their altruistic needs are met according to (Karl, et al., 2008). The challenge for not for profit organizations, is to provide diverse short term opportunities to volunteers and ensure a good experience for the volunteer. The new face of volunteering necessitates a critical analysis on incorporating new ways of attracting volunteers in line with these trends as “Increasing volunteer membership and volunteer participation should provide not for profit organizations with more resources to achieve their goals’’ (Woods, 2006, p. 19). 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