Methods Associated with Quantitative Research - Coursework Example

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS By Student’s Name Course Name Professor’s Name University Name City, State Date Business Research Methods Part 1 Qualitative approach to research is mainly used to conduct exploratory research that helps in understanding reasons behind certain opinions and motivations according to (Taylor, Steven, Robert & Marjorie 2015). Qualitative research gives more understanding and insights behind hypothesis and quantitative research. The sample size used to conduct the research is usually small. Qualitative research approaches help to answer questions such as why and how during research. Qualitative methods are more flexible as compared to the quantitative research methods. Analysis of qualitative data is through interpretive methods. Qualitative research traditions and theories There are different traditions that form basis for qualitative research as discussed below. 1) Ecological psychology The tradition was started by Baker, Wright and their colleagues at the University of Kansas. Its conception and ideas draw from natural history. Ecological psychologists study human behavior that occurs naturally as well as the impact the environment has on human behavior. According to ecological psychologists, human behavior is both objective and subjective in nature. The tradition also asserts that the environment also has both subjective and objective attributes. The subjective nature of the environment is the perception an individual has towards the environment while the objective aspect refers to the ecological environment. Ecological psychologists claim that environment and individuals are interdependent. The tradition aims at describing certain behavior as well as discovers the laws that govern behavior. 2) Holistic ethnography Holistic ethnography was developed by Franz Boaz and Bronislaw Malinowski. The tradition works towards analyzing partly or wholly the beliefs and cultures of a group of people. Holistic ethnographers define culture as both pattern for and patterns of behavior. The holistic ethnographers believe that cultures are interdependent and if one changes, it affects the others and that each culture is unique in its own way. According to this tradition, there exists some diversity in the sense that, individuals have to observe their environment so as to decide how to behave in different situations. The aim of holistic ethnographers is to study the culture of bound groups such as towns, institutions or countries. The tradition focuses on exploration and learning and not testing as asserted by (Preissle & Le Compte 1984). 3) Ethnography of communication Ethnography of communication was developed from the work of socio linguistics, sociology, anthropology and non verbal communication. The tradition focuses on the various patterns of interaction among members of a culture as well as people from different cultures. It aims at studying how people interact face to face. Communication ethnographers use culture as a tool to understanding the behavior of human beings and assume that both verbal and non-verbal communications are culturally bound to each other according to (Preissle & Le Compte 1984). 4) Cognitive anthropology The theory was developed by Ward Goodenough and Charles Frake who focused mainly on linguistic methods. The cognitive anthropologists define culture as being mental and they focus on language as the main determinant of culture. The main aim of cognitive anthropology is to observe the expected and most appropriate behavior and not the observable behavior according to (Lewis 2015). 5) Symbolic interactionism Symbolic interactionism was developed by Hebert Blumer and assumes that an individual’s experience is defined by his or her interpretation of experience. The experiences are gained through interactions between people and used to achieve specific goals. Symbolic interactionists aim at understanding how these interpretations are achieved and applied in different situations of interaction between people in order to comprehend behavior (Lewis 2015). 6) Grounded theory This approach in qualitative research aims at analysis of processes, actions or interactions with the aim of developing a theory. The theory was developed by Glaser and Strauss and is very different from the traditional approaches which carry out analysis based on existing theories while grounded theory focuses on observing the data available and formulating a theory from the research (Strauss & Corbin 1998). Traditional approaches to behavior give focus to qualitative research approaches. The traditions offer different ways into understanding naturally occurring human behavior and perceptions and are therefore critical in qualitative research. On the other hand, there are different methods associated with qualitative research and are discussed below. 1) Interviews A good interview should be detailed and should flow naturally. The researcher’s main duty should be listening not talking. For an interview to give all details being investigated, the interviewer should create an atmosphere that will make the respondent comfortable. The information obtained from interviews may further require transcription and coding so as to establish the relevant information. Interviews are a more personal method of acquiring information and the interviewer has a chance to ask follow up questions. There are different types of interviews namely: a) Telephone interviews – they require that both the interviewer and interviewee have telephones. It is as personal as the face to face interviews but take less time. b) Open-ended interviews- the questions asked to all interviewees are the same and therefore take less time. Because the questions are open ended, interviewees can answer questions based on their opinion. c) Closed interviews- are interviews set in such a way that the questions being asked are similar to all interviewees and they are given choices of alternatives to choose from. d) Informal interviews- the interviewers do not have predetermined questions but shape the conversation depending on the nature of the respondents. From the above diagram, it is clear that interviews can either be standardized or non-standardized. The standardized interviews are in form of questionnaires that the interviewer has asked the same questions to all respondents. The non-standardized interviews may take place between one interviewer and one respondent or between one interviewer and many respondents (Saunders 2009). 2) Surveys/ focus groups Surveys refer to a study of a particular population through an observation of some of its entities for the purpose of understanding a full description of the population. Focus groups on the other hand are interviews conducted on a small group of people. A facilitator oversees the discussion which is usually consisting of 10-12 members. The conversations take place among the members of the focus group as well as between them and the facilitator. The group method of collecting information is applicable in cases of small groups such as people with disabilities and as such surveys of the whole community would not be useful. Group interviews are also more comfortable as compared to individual interviews (Gill, Steward, Treasure & Chadwick 2008). 3) Observations The researcher collects information by analyzing data collected from study group. The observer often has to get involved in the life of his subjects for example a researcher may start living in a certain town to enable him collect data regarding the culture of the occupants of the town. However, there are several ethical issues associated with this type of research method based on whether the researcher should disclose their identity and whether he or she will be accepted by the members of that particular group. 4) Analyzing documents and texts This type of research involves analysis of books, texts, recorded material, newspapers, magazines, film and television. The information collected is then used as a source of data regarding different subjects. For instance tourism research requires data from not only written material but also from films, landscapes, television programs, townscapes and paintings. Criticisms of qualitative research Firstly, the mode of collection and analysis is time consuming because the information collected via qualitative research methods is deep and involving. Time is wasted while taking notes, transcription, coding and assessing the relevant information (Cohen, Manion & Morrison 2013). The more time consumed translates into high costs. Secondly, it is expensive to obtain qualitative research because of the books, cameras as well training of the researchers. The researchers need to be well educated so as to enable them handle different types of respondents. The training also equips them with the relevant skills so that they are able to collect the intended information without intimidating the respondents. However, the quality of the research and the information collected is dependent on the experience of the researcher and as such may be subject to his interpretation and bias therefore, resulting to inaccurate results at times. The other criticism on qualitative research methods is based on the fact that the researcher is usually present during research and therefore this often affects the responses of some respondents who may not be comfortable. During presentation of findings, the researcher is faced with the problem of anonymity and confidentiality because some respondents may want to conceal their identity according to (Cohen, Manion & Morrison 2013). In conclusion therefore, it is evident that the qualitative research methods are applicable today in many ways of research and there are several ways that qualitative research can be conducted namely: interviews, focus groups, observation and analysis of text. As much as the methods are useful, they also have some criticisms leveled against them for example they are expensive to use, time consuming, subject to bias and they require that the researcher is experienced. Part 2 Quantitative research methods are objective and involve computation of existing data, collected data using questionnaires and polls as well as the numerical analysis of data (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie 2004). The research involves use of numerical data and generalizing it to explain certain phenomena. Quantitative research aims at establishing the relationship between a dependent variable and an independent variable in a population. This type of research either takes a descriptive form where research takes place only once or experimental where research is done before and after a conclusion is arrived at. Descriptive research establishes association between the subjects of study while the experimental research determines causality. Quantitative research methods are mainly numerical and highly reliable because they are accurate. Also, the research questions are determined way before the research is conducted by use of a larger sample that is used to represent the population. The research can as well be replicated. In this kind of research, the researchers focus on coming up with figures and then presenting them in models such as tables and charts for easier interpretation. Traditions and theories associated with quantitative research There are several theories and traditions that form the base for quantitative research. Quantitative research is usually about testing theories by use of facts and figures. Positivism is a philosophy that follows that any factual information gained through the use of senses and measurement is reliable as shown by (Creswell 2013). The researcher should approach the research objectively, collect quantifiable data and interpret it. Positivists believe that knowledge emanates from human experience and follow a deductive research approach. With positivism philosophy, the researcher has minimal interaction with the subject of study and therefore relies on facts. The research that involves positivism, researchers use logic and the data collected must be quantifiable. Empiricism is the other philosophy that guides quantitative research approaches. The philosophy emanates from Aristotle’s claim that everything intellectual starts from the mind. Empiricism is thus a theory of knowledge which roots from human experience. Knowledge can be used to refer to all forms of consciousness. Empirical philosophy requires that the researcher is able to acquire facts, count and measure. Empirical methods have been used in the past to study issues on race, gender, sexuality and other social phenomena (Creswell 2013). Rationalism philosophy according to (Teddlie & tashakkori 2009) also forms a basis for quantitative research. Rationalists assert that knowledge does not have to emanate from sense but knowledge can be acquired independent of using senses. The philosophers argue that there are times when human knowledge and experience can outweigh the sense experience rationalists are intuitive and claim that reason is a better method of acquiring information. This branch of philosophy believes that some information is possible to acquire through rationalism rather than skepticism. Phenomenalism is the other theory that governs quantitative research approaches, according to (Creswell 2013) the phenomenalists insist that knowledge should be based on sense experience of phenomena. For example in the case of surveys, the researcher has to collect information that is believed to exist and it is therefore upon the researcher to collect and interpret the data obtained. The researcher aims at identifying an already existing phenomenon even before he asks the question regarding people’s attitudes, beliefs and characteristics. It is upon the revelation of such phenomena that the theory is founded. Methods associated with quantitative research There are several ways used to conduct quantitative research. Firstly, a researcher can use sample surveys. The questions can be asked to respondents online, by phone or face to face. Surveys involve the researcher asking the same questions to a large number of people. Surveys can take less time because the same questions are asked and also if they are conducted on phone or online. Surveys are often accurate because they have minimal influence from the researcher and also because the researcher is able to observe the uniformity of the responses and come up with the most suitable answers. Surveys also involve technicalities as the only task involved is to disseminate the survey questionnaires and then analyze the results obtained. However, surveys may be affected by a possibility of some questions being inappropriate and therefore affecting the way respondents give their opinions. Surveys are also very rigid because the questions are the same and it would therefore be difficult to change them in the process of data collection. The other method used in quantitative research involves observation. A researcher aims at relying on what he or she has observed and not hearsay. Observation may require repeated observation of a phenomenon for example when determining behavior of a subject, observation has to be carried out over time. The observer is often independent of the research and only records what he or she sees. This may require him to incorporate disguise of identity which to some extent may bring out the question of ethics to research. Observation method is reliable because it is not subject to bias. The method is also cheap and less demanding in nature. Observation demands less involvement with the respondents and the observer can make even deeper observations about an underlying problem. However, observation on its own is not sufficient because it involves tools that are expensive and there is no guarantee that the phenomenon being observed will occur during the research period and this therefore is time consuming. Interviews in quantitative research are more structured as compared to qualitative research and therefore the researcher asks standard questions only according to (Gill, Steward, Treasure & Chadwick 2008). There are different ways of conducting interviews for example face to face. When conducted face to face, the interviewer is able to clarify ambiguous answers as well as ask follow up questions. However this method tends to be time consuming and expensive and cannot be applied in cases where very large samples are involved. On the other hand telephone interviews can also be used because they are less expensive and take less time. However, they may not be applicable in cases where the respondents do not have phones. The researcher may also make computer assisted personal interviews where they carry along computers to fill in the data they receive from the respondents. The method can be expensive to buy the laptops as well as train the researchers on how to use the laptops but in the long run takes less time to conduct the interviews. Quantitative research may also incorporate the use of secondary sources of data for example by analyzing documents and texts. The researcher has to collect data from books, films, newspapers, brochures and magazines. The researcher comes up with detailed data regarding a particular subject from the works of other people. Researchers collect data from materials with information regarding their subject. The method is less expensive to use because the researcher is not deeply involved with data collection. Criticisms leveled against quantitative research Quantitative research is criticized based on the fact at times it lacks details for example in the case of closed questionnaires where respondents are limited to certain choices. The respondent will therefore respond according to the choices available despite the fact that they may of a different opinion. Therefore, the rigidity of quantitative research is a limitation to the quality of research and data collected according to (Cohen, Manion & Morrison 2013). Quantitative research also fails to give in depth information concerning a phenomenon, the main focus is usually on the quantifiable aspect of a situation for example in case of an accident quantitative research aims at knowing the number of injured people instead of the main cause of the accident. Some quantitative research methods are time consuming for example interviews and this trickle down to escalated costs of conducting research. The researchers also have to be trained so as to equip them with the necessary skills to carry out research. Quantitative research methods are also not sufficient when used in isolation. The method requires incorporation of qualitative methods so as to give detailed information about a particular phenomenon under study. In conclusion, quantitative research methods aim at coming up with numerical data in any phenomenon. There are several theories that govern quantitative research namely; positivism, empiricism, rationalism and Phenomenalism. Quantitative research often produces accurate results but is criticized based on the fact that the method is expensive, time consuming and lacks in depth detail about the research conducted. References Strauss, A. and Corbin, J., 1998. Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory . Sage Publications, Inc. Taylor, Steven J., Robert Bogdan, and Marjorie DeVault. Introduction to qualitative research methods: A guidebook and resource. John Wiley & Sons, 2015. Preissle, J. and Le Compte, M.D., 1984. Ethnography and qualitative design in educational research. Academic Press. Lewis, S., 2015. Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Health promotion practice, p.1524839915580941. Creswell, J.W., 2013. Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage publications. Teddlie, C. and Tashakkori, A. eds., 2009. Foundations of mixed methods research: Integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches in the social and behavioral sciences. Sage Publications Inc. Gill, P., Stewart, K., Treasure, E. and Chadwick, B., 2008. Methods of data collection in qualitative research: interviews and focus groups. British dental journal, 204(6), pp.291-295. Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K., 2013. Research methods in education. Routledge. Johnson, R.B. and Onwuegbuzie, A.J., 2004. Mixed methods research: A research paradigm whose time has come. Educational researcher, 33(7), pp.14-26. Saunders, M.N., 2009. Research methods for business students, 5/e. Pearson Education India. Read More