Research Methods in Leisure and Tourism - Coursework Example

Research Methods in Leisure and Tourism Name Course Name and Code Instructor’s Name Date Introduction Contemporary market and business environments are characterized by advancement in technology and increased globalization which has shrank the world into a global village where people from varied cultural backgrounds easily interact and transact business. According to Albricht (2007), the multicultural environment makes it necessarily for modern-day organizations to learn how best to manage culturally diversified workplaces and to obtain the benefits generated by such environments. The enhanced need to diversify and effectively meet the needs and rising demands of the multicultural global consumer means that organizations cannot merely apply the one-fit all management approach (Lippman, 2006). Since management of multicultural organizations is a new concept, there is need to critically evaluate research studies conducted on the subject in order to examine the effectiveness of management of multicultural organizations and examine what does work and what does not. This report seeks to critically review the research methodologies and approaches used by two peer reviewed articles focusing on management of multicultural organizations. Comprehensive understanding on research methodology is vital in helping one critically assess research studies conducted by other researchers and thus, helps in evaluating the reliability, accuracy, consistency, validity and relevance of their research findings (Mitchell & Jolley, 2009). In addition, the knowledge on research methodology helps a researcher to know which research approaches and methods to use based on what they need to investigate to ensure they obtain reliable, relevant and accurate findings that add vital information to the research area and generate new research questions. When carrying out meaningful research it is imperative for the researcher to be impartial, unbiased, accurate and critical. The researcher should be able to generate and form balanced and objective opinions and be in a position to ensure their personal point of views and judgements do not interfere in their review of other’s people’s work (Walsh, 2001). Walsh (2001) asserts that personal inclinations, attitude and beliefs should not interfere in how researchers collect data, process data and present the data which safeguards against research bias which generates research errors that influence the accuracy, reliability, consistency and validity of the research findings. Understanding how to carry out research and how to effectively critique other people’s research is essential in offering explanations to real world phenomena and helps in understanding the phenomena, predicting when and where the phenomena may occur in the future and more importantly help researchers to predict how the phenomena can be regenerated or safeguarded against. Research knowledge allows researchers to learn how their own research studies relate or contradict with other current or previous research work (Mitchell & Jolley, 2009). For example, by analyzing research previously done on effectiveness of multicultural management of organizations, it provides a framework for helping real- world organizations to effectively know whether or not to encourage diversity in their workplaces and how to effectively manage their culturally diversified workplaces. Introduction to Research Articles chosen Why the two articles are chosen The two journal articles chosen in this report are not only peer-reviewed and current having been published after the year 2000 but also they have comprehensively analysed management of multicultural diversity in organizations using qualitative and quantitative research methodologies. Article 1 is cited as Lynne Leveson, Therese A. Joiner, Steve Bakalis., 2009. "Managing cultural diversity and perceived organizational support: Evidence from Australia", International Journal of Manpower, Vol. 30 Iss: 4, pp.377 – 392. On the other hand, article 2 is cited as Matveev, A.V. 2002. THE ADVANTAGES OF EMPLOYING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE METHODS IN INTERCULTURAL RESEARCH: PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS FROM THE STUDY OF THE PERCEPTIONS OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE BY AMERICAN AND RUSSIAN MANAGERS. Russian Communication Association, 168, p. p 59-67 Accessible from http://www.russcomm.ru/eng/rca_biblio/m/matveev01_eng.shtml Leveson et al. (2009) used quantitative research method by developing and distributing questionnaire survey to collect data while Matveev (2002) used quantitative research method which entailed two research questionnaires which were the Intercultural Communication Competence Questionnaire and the High Performance Team Questionnaire. The researcher also used qualitative research method which constituted forty semi-structured interviews. The two articles provides fundamental insights on the importance of management of cultural diversity which is important for me as a student and as a professional since I am currently exposed to people from varied cultural backgrounds and anticipate to interact with them in the future. The articles highlights how one can effectively correlate with people from cultures different from one’s own which is essential in enhancing teamwork and participation in learning and work related activities. key questions / issues explored Leveson et al. (2009) seeks to analyze the relationship between employee perceptions of their firm’s management of cultural diversity, their perceived organizational support and affective commitment. Matveev (2002) seeks to investigate the perception of intercultural communication competence by American and Russian managers with experience on multicultural teams and depict the correlation between intercultural communication proficiency of managers and the performance of multicultural teams. The academic discipline informing either research agendas is business and law. Discussion of Research Process Research stages undertaken Article 1 Leveson et al. (2009) begins the research process by indicating the research aims and identifying the problem which is to find out if there is any correlation that exists between organizational efforts in management of cultural diversity and perceived support and affective commitment from the labour force, which helps in formulating the research questions. The research article further obtains background information by reviewing previous studies and literature on the area of study and considers appropriate research tools to use. Using the selected research methods and approach, the researcher collects the required material using quantitative research method by distributing survey questionnaire to selected research sample (Leveson et al. 2009). Data analysis follows which generates the research findings. Research process for study carried out by Leveson et al. (2009); Research aims-- Problem identification—literature review—analysis of research tools—selection of suitable research tool (quantitative research method)—data collection-- data analysis—research findings Article 2 Matveev (2002) begins the research process by establishing the research objectives which are to examine how American and Russian managers perceive intercultural communication competence, and to describe the correlation between intercultural communication competence of managers and the performance of multicultural teams and identifying the research problem. Formulation of the research questions follows. The article further evaluates research philosophies which include interpretative paradigm and the functional or positivist paradigm and the various research methodologies namely quantitative and qualitative research methods to assess which is the most suitable for the research study (Matveev, 2002). Selection of the research sample follows which is followed by selection of the most effective research technique. The research study opts to use both qualitative and quantitative research technique. Data and statistical analysis follows which generates the research results Research stages taken by Matveev (2002); Research objectives— research problem— research questions— analysis of various research methods and research philosophies— selection of research sample— selection of suitable research method and research philosophy— data and statistical analysis— research results Research tradition underpinning either research The research study carried out by Leveson et al. (2009) bases its research on positivism which stresses objectivist approach to investigating social events and gives emphasis on research methods dealing with quantitative analysis. Leveson et al. (2009) prefers to use questionnaire survey only which is a research method used in positivist research paradigm. According to Cohen et al. (2000), positivist paradigm stresses on using observation and reason to explain human behaviour and it is based on the framework of principles and assumptions of science which includes parsimony, determinism, empiricism, and generality. On the other hand, Matveev (2002) prefers to merge both research approaches of positivism and interpretative paradigm in the research study in order to counter the limitations of either and capitalize on the advantages offered by the two research traditions. Using two research questionnaires, the study is partially based on the functional or positivist paradigm which guides the quantitative form of research. According to Matveev, (2002), positivist paradigm is founded on assumption that social realities have objective structure and people are responding agents to this objective environment. Using forty semi-structured interviews, the study applies interpretive paradigm, which suggest that social reality is developed and sustained through the subjective experience of individuals involved in communication as noted by Matveev (2002). Cohen et al. (2000) indicates that interpretative paradigm is based on the assumptions that knowledge is personally experienced and not obtained from outside and reality is intricate and multifaceted. This research tradition is correlated with phenomenology, symbolic interactionism and ethnomethodology (Cohen, et al., 2000). Data collected by the study carried out by Leveson et al. (2009) is quantitative in nature since it was gathered using quantitative research method while data collected by research done by Matveev (2002) is both qualitative and quantitative having used both qualitative and quantitative research methods to gather the data. Rationale for adopting a qualitative and/or quantitative approach to data collection The use of quantitative research methods by both articles generates particular advantages which informs the rationale for using them in the studies. The use of quantitative method permitted the researchers to clearly and accurately specify independent and dependent variables, the researchers were able to follow the original set of research aims and attain high rates of data reliability owing to mass surveying thus, informing the research aims (Bernard, 2000). In addition, researchers were able to come up with more objective results by reducing subjectivity of judgements (Matveev, 2002). Nevertheless, use of quantitative method generate some limitations which includes rigidity where the research process is not open to modifications and new data while carrying out the research, which limits the scope of the study and limits the amount of data collected (Bernard, 2000). Matveev (2002) notes that using quantitative method; the researcher becomes unable to obtain data on situation context and has difficulty controlling the environment where research subjects give answers to the questions. Both studies uses survey questionnaires which are not only cost effective, easy to administer, they generate high rates of reliability and uniformity of data collected due to use of standard questions, they are not prone to researcher bias and the use of codes ease entry of data which reduces data entry errors (Mitchell & Jolley, 2009). The ability for questionnaires to permit anonymity is suitable for the area of study hence enhancing credibility and reliability of data collected on management of cultural diversity in organizations. This helps in effectively achieving research aims and resolving research problem. Be it as it may, use of questionnaires generates particular limitations which includes risks of researcher bias during structuring of the questions and respondent bias when responding which impacts on reliability and accuracy of data collected (Mitchell & Jolley, 2009). Similarly, the qualitative method used by Matveev (2002) offered a holistic analysis of the subject under investigation and allowed the researcher to gather data in a flexible and in unstructured approach which helps capture new data that enriches the research. Through qualitative method, the researcher was able to interact with the respondents and hence observe non-verbal communication which informs on reliability of data and it permits clarification of information from research subjects and is fundamental in analysing the accuracy and consistency with the data collected quantitatively which helps in ensuring research goals are achieved and research problem is resolved (Matveev, 2002). Nevertheless, use of qualitative method is prone to certain limitations such as deviation from original research aims owing to changing nature of context, incapacity to examine causality among research phenomena, challenge in explaining the difference quantity and quality of data collected from varied respondents and getting non-consistent results as echoed by Bernard (2000). The semi-structured interviews were effective in helping the researcher generate new questions relevant to the area of study hence enhancing reliability and accuracy of the study and the researcher was able to obtain relevant, updated and timely responses to the research questions (Walsh, 2001). Use of semi-structured interviews generates limitations such as high costs of gathering data, the study becomes susceptible to researcher and respondent bias and research subjects may lack sufficient time to address every question (Walsh, 2001). Use of secondary and primary data Both authors have significantly used both primary and secondary data. Secondary data entails data gathered from secondary sources (Guffey & Loewy, 2009). The data is often collected by other researchers for their own objectives. Guffey & Loewy (2009) notes that secondary data is readily available and accessible hence data collection is relatively cost effective, time efficient and uses less resources and energy to gather. The main limitation of using secondary data is that it may be outdated and fail to answer the intended questions while data may be influenced by researcher bias which raises questions on the quality of data collected (Guffey & Loewy, 2009). Both studies utilize secondary sources which are primarily peer reviewed journal articles, published academic books and internet sources. Primary data which entails data collected firsthand using original research hypothesis and questions which are helpful in answering researcher’s specific inquiries are the major type of data used in both articles (Guffey & Loewy, 2009). Primary data is advantageous because it is specific, pertinent and valid although it is costly to gather and consumers more time and resources compared to using secondary data (Guffey & Loewy, 2009). By using both primary and secondary data, the researchers are able to overcome the limitations of either and capitalize on the advantages of each type of data. Comparative analysis of Methodologies key findings of either research Article 1 According to Leveson et al. (2009), there is no direct correlation between cultural diversity management perceptions and affective commitment. This is because although cultural diversity is essential in enhancing information sharing, creativity, limiting skills shortage and attracting a larger market segment, cultural diversity unless effectively managed, can generate tensions among team members and have negative effect on their performance of the team and productivity of the organization as supported by Loudin (2008). The main findings are that when controlling for perceived organizational support, there is no direct relationship between cultural diversity management perceptions and affective commitment (Leveson et al. 2009). The findings support an indirect relationship between the two variables via perceived organizational support (Leveson et al. 2009). Article 2 The main findings are that interpersonal skills dimension of intercultural communication competence is the most important factor in enhancing intercultural communication (Matveev, 2002). According to the findings, the level of intercultural communication competence of individual team members affects the performance of multicultural teams in their organizations as supported by Friday & Friday (2009). understanding of the subject area in relation to the methodological approach of either research Article 1 From the article, I have understood the importance of effectively managing cultural diversity in a culturally diversified workplace in order to generate positive employee outcomes (Leveson et al. 2009). The study has enhanced my knowledge on the need, aim and scope of managing diversity in modern social and business environments, which is crucial for me presently as a student and in the future as a professional. The use of questionnaires as a quantitative research method makes it easy for me to understand better the subject matter and interpret the data easily. Article 2 Article 2 has equipped me with significant amount of insights of what I will require when doing my own research studies in regards to the subject since the study has highlighted in depth the strengths and weaknesses of both quantitative and qualitative methods and positivists and interpretative paradigms. I have broaden my knowledge on the need for effective intercultural communication which will help me in dealing with cultural intricacies and understanding and embracing cultural differences as a student and as a professional. Use of both quantitative and qualitative methods and positivist and interpretive approaches has generated more data and scope which has helped answer the research questions, solve the research problem and attain research goals hence equipping me with more insights on issues regarding the subject matter (Cohen, et al., 2000). Issues include the need to not only learn about people’s culture but also knowing the personality, behaviour patterns in conflict situations and life experiences of people from different cultures that I interact with to effectively interact and work with them effectively (Friday & Friday, 2009). Working and learning in a culturally diversified environment requires I become a proficient intercultural communicator (Loudin, 2008). The strengths and weaknesses of either research methodologies / findings in relation to data collection methods and qualitative / quantitative rationale Article 1 The research findings from the study are relatively substantial in answering the research questions and attaining the research aims. The accuracy, reliability and consistency would have further been enhanced if the researcher would have adopted additional research methods and approaches such as use of quantitative methods which include focus group discussions. This is because the dependence on quantitative method meant the research process was not open to modifications and the researcher could not control the environment where research subjects give answers to the questions as suggested by Matveev (2002). Article 2 The use of both quantitative and qualitative methods allowed the researcher to counter the limitations of either method and capitalize on the advantages of each will was essential in resolving the research problem and achieving the set research goals (Matveev, 2002). Basing the research on both positivist and interpretive paradigms ensures the research findings were acceptable across the board and ensure the subject matter was analyzed from every possible perspective or view which ensured the data collected and research results were relevant, accurate, credible, timely, valid and consistent. Conclusions Research methodology is an essential aspect of any study since it validates facts and eliminates inaccuracies and uncertainties. It not only frames the study but also established the research tools and strategies used and associate their use to set research goals and objectives in order to generate accurate and reliable conclusions. Research methodology is crucial as it defines the activities of a particular study, its procedural techniques and strategies for quantifying progress. It is apparent that even the best conducted researches are prone to errors due to varied reasons. References Albricht, M.H. 2007. International HRM – Managing Diversity in the Workplace. European Business Review, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 74-76. Bernard, H.R. 2000. Social research methods: qualitative and quantitative approaches. Sidney: Sage Publications. Cohen, L, Lawrence, M. & Morrison, K. 2000. Research Methods in Education, 5th Ed. London. Cengage Learning. Friday, E & Friday, S. S. 2009. Managing diversity using a strategic planned change approach. Journal of Management Development, vol. 22, no. 10, pp. 863-880. Guffey, M.E. & Loewy. 2009. Essentials of Business Communication. London: Cengage Learning. Lippman, H. 2006. Harnessing the power of diversity. Business and Health, vol. 17, no. 6, p. 40. Loudin, A. 2008. Diversity pays. Warehousing Management, vol. 7, pp. 30-33. Lynne Leveson, Therese A. Joiner, Steve Bakalis. 2009. Managing cultural diversity and perceived organizational support: Evidence from Australia. International Journal of Manpower, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 377 - 392 Matveev, A.V. 2002. the advantages of employing quantitative and qualitative methods in intercultural research: practical implications from the study of the perceptions of intercultural communication competence by american and russian managers. Russian Communication Association, 168, p. p 59-67 Accessible from http://www.russcomm.ru/eng/rca_biblio/m/matveev01_eng.shtml Mitchell, M.K. & Jolley, J.M. 2009. Research Design Explained. London: Cengage Learning. Walsh, M. 2001. Research made real: a guide for students. 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