Functionalist and Critical Perspectives of Public Relations - Essay Example

Functionalist and Critical Perspectives of Public Relations

KEMO (STUDENT NUMBER)

Introduction

This essay will argue that the critical perspective of public relations (“PR”) emerged out of a response to the one-dimensional nature of the PR discipline that L’Etang (2012) argues drew from decisions and structures that were over-idealistic, especially in relation to ethics and propaganda. Considering the functionalist and critical perspectives of PR, the discipline can be viewed in different ways. Drawing from a range of research including journal articles, webpages, and books, this essay will demonstrate that the critical perspective of PR explores the ideas of symmetry and the ethics of PR, particularly with respect to over-idealism.

This essay will explore these ideas further by using L’Etangs’ perspective as a starting point. Drawing on a range of theoretical perspectives, arguments and historical positions, this essay will critically examine the functionalist and critical perspectives of PR, and case studies will be explored to substantitate the conclusions drawn. In this regard, the essay will examine the basic tenets of critical perspective and functionalist perspective theories and then compare and contrast them in efforts to determine which one gives the full story of PR.

Defining PR

PR entails the manner in which individuals, organisations, public entities, and companies communicate with the media and public (Johnston & Sheehan, 2014). Communication is a key tool for problem solving and maintaining a positive attitude, especially in challenging circumstances (James, 2009). Accordingly, PR operates by managing public expectations in relation to corporate affairs, government processes, and organisational matters (Bowen, Rawlins, & Martin, 2010). PR is a profession with specialists whose mandate is to establish positive relationships between organisations and the public (Phillips & Young, 2009). Although PR exercises are meant to communicate organisational agendas with a view to creating a positive public mindset, sometimes the acting authorities conduct such exercises fraudulently (Johnston & Sheehan, 2014). An effective PR exercise is comprised of a number of components as well as two major parties, namely the audience (“public”) and the organisation (James, 2009). Firstly, the choice of medium or communication channel will influence the effectiveness of PR activities. The communication channel connects a particular organisation to its public and such channels can include newsletters, the World Wide Web (“WWW”), press releases, and public appearances (Johnston & Sheehan, 2014).

In their profession, PR specialists must choose the most suitable communication channel depending on the nature of the message, the target audience, and the urgency of the message (Ihlen & van Ruler, 2007). Notably, the underlying message of the PR activity is equally important as the communication channel selected and the parties who are communicating, as without the message, the PR exercise lacks meaning. Therefore, the communication ought to include the three major components of an effective PR exercise (Johnston & Sheehan, 2014). 

Rationale of PR

Most organisations and individuals hire PR companies and specialists to create a positive image about such entities in the public eye (Bowen, Rawlins, & Martin, 2010). Governments and corporate entities have a reputation to protect and maintain, and they need to engage the public from time-to-time to check public perceptions (Grunig, 2013). The role of PR companies or specialists in such situations is to ensure or restore the credibility of the organisations that they work for by painting a positive picture about their client to the public (Bowen, Rawlins, & Martin, 2010). PR firms understand that a well-crafted positive message can go a long way in uplifting the public expectations and perceptions about an organisation. Notably, credibility is more important in government organisations, especially in the public sector, than in corporate entities whose aim is to attract and retain customers (Johnston & Sheehan, 2014).

PR exercises tend to be one-dimensional, meaning that the PR activity always positions the organisation positively. Therefore, it can be argued that organisations approach PR from a functionalist perspective. This is because organisations conduct PR exercises with the primary objective of meeting their own goals as opposed to serving the interest of the public, which comes as a secondary motive (Bowen, Rawlins, & Martin, 2010). 

Functionalist Perspective of PR

Bowen, Rawlins and Martin (2010) associate the functionalist perspective of PR with the organisational objectives rather than on the public interest. In essence, this perspective does not give the full story of PR because it views communication and the public as tools that the organisation can manipulate through PR exercises in order to achieve their own ends rather than as integral components of the overall PR exercise. According to the functionalist perspective, organisational messages serve a strategic function (Johnston & Sheehan, 2014).

The functionalist approach to PR views the public as mere conduits to business success rather than equal participants in PR engagements (James, 2009). As such, the public does not have a voice in a functionalist PR exercise because their response is more important than their concerns or interests (Bowen, Rawlins, & Martin, 2010). This is another way in which the functionalist perspective does not give the full story of PR. The majority of corporate entities adopt a functionalist PR approach with a view to making profits through public manipulation (Ihlen & Van Ruler, 2007; Phillips & Young, 2009). Such entities may paint a fraudulent picture about the performance of organisations in order to attract investors or customers without necessarily considering the implications of such messages on the public (James, 2009). Based on these factors, it can be argued from an ethical viewpoint that the functionalist perspective of PR perspective can be biased and unethical (L’Etang, 2014).

The functionalist perspective of PR views the communication channel as important to reaching its intended audience. For corporate entities, mass media is the most commonly utilised communication channel especially for press releases and advertisements, which are designed to boost organisational performance. Whereas for governmental organisations, public campaigns such as public health campaigns are commonplace and involve the use of the public as a conduit to achieving organisational agendas (L'Etang, 2012).

Excellence Theory

According to L'Etang (2012), Excellence Theory focuses on the extent to which communication, particularly PR, furthers the agenda of an organisation. Excellence Theory seeks to understand PR by looking at the whole issue of PR from a strategic management perspective. In this way, Excellence theory provides the full story of PR unlike the functionalist perspective. According to Excellence Theory, organisations sponsor their communications, whether internal communications or media relations, in order to achieve certain objectives (Dozier, Grunig, & Grunig, 2013). Accordingly, PR theory has been transformed to become a management subject that takes into account communication strategies.

Excellence Theory emphasises the impact that good relations between corporate entities and their stakeholders can have on reducing negative publicity and litigation costs (Ihlen & van Ruler, 2007). According to recent research conducted by Phillips and Young (2009) about CEO’s, PR is beneficial to corporate entities because it assists organisations in achieving a 184% return on their investment (Bowen, Rawlins, & Martin, 2010). This phenomenon binds the Excellence Theory of PR to the functionalist perspective with regard to organisational success. As such, it is worth considering the critical perspective of PR.

Critical Perspective of PR

The critical perspective of PR exists with the aim of being proactive and confrontational (James, 2009). The critical perspective gives the full story of PR by focusing on identifying the party whose interest is being served in a particular PR activity (Bowen, Rawlins, & Martin, 2010). This approach can be contrasted to the functionalist perspective, which focuses solely on the purpose of the communication.

Notably, the role that the sponsoring organisation plays in the establishment of power is important when it comes to the scholars of critical PR (Johnston & Sheehan, 2014). Through a careful analysis, the critical perspective of PR reveals a number of phenomenon that are absent in a functionalist perspective. For instance, ethical issues are absent in the functionalist perspective of PR and present in the critical perspective. Although the rhetorical and excellence theories are emphasised in the functionalist perspective of PR, the perspective lacks any ethical considerations as well as professional responsibility (Heath & Xifra, 2015).

The critical theory is relevant to PR as it brings out the voice of the voiceless, which in most cases is the public/audience (Johnston & Sheehan, 2014). Participatory planning is important in PR because it incorporates all three components of PR, namely the public, the media, and the sponsoring organisation (Ihlen & van Ruler, 2007). According to this approach, PR has now expanded to encompass a number of unrelated issues such as crisis management, corporate responsibility, lobbying, effectiveness of communication, and marketing of the corporate image. However, with the popularity of PR in management spheres, a number of dilemmas and tensions have arisen. Accordingly, the critical perspective focuses on the concepts and theories that underpin the discipline (L’Etang, 2014).

According to L’Etang (2012), the critical and functionalist perspectives of PR can be analysed from different standpoints, with the ethical dimension taking precedence. The functionalist perspective of PR led to the classification of PR as a management discipline. Consequently, the one-dimensional aspect of PR causes the discipline to conflict with other managerial issues, especially in the corporate sector (Bowen, Rawlins, & Martin, 2010). The critical perspective of PR looks at the discipline from various viewpoints in order to draw a balance between organisational needs and reality (Ihlen & van Ruler, 2007). PR is one-dimensional in the sense that the organisations sponsoring the PR exercise stand to gain, while the public and the media are mere tools for achieving organisational objectives.

Over-idealism

Ideally, PR would be two-dimensional or two-way and symmetrical wherein the publics’ interests and voices were equally represented, as are those of the sponsoring organisation. This would enable both parties to enjoy mutual benefits. However, PR exercises are almost always one-way and asymmetrical with the organisational motives taking precedence (Heath & Xifra, 2015; Spicer, 2013). This scenario raises ethical concerns and doubts over the level of professionalism that exists in the PR discipline, particularly in the corporate world. As PR is often asymmetrical, the onus for upholding professional ethics and responsibility is greater especially for the sponsoring organisation that communicates to and influences the public through its messages (James, 2009).

The over-idealistic frameworks and judgments have a strong correlation to the critical perspective of PR (Ihlen & van Ruler, 2007). According to L’Etang (2012), the two-way symmetrical form of PR is not realistic because it is impractical, considering the numerous challenges that PR faces. The over-idealistic model of PR tends to be normative in the sense that it is either one-way symmetrical or two-way asymmetrical (Johnston & Sheehan, 2014). PR emerged out of the ambiguities in various communication models. Accordingly, the PR theories that are common within organisations tend to overlook the very essence of communication. Most organisations intend to use the public as tools for achieving organisational goals through persuasive communication (Ihlen & van Ruler, 2007).

Persuasion and rhetorical theories have been the core of organisational PR for a considerable time, although the critical perspective of PR seeks to analyse the ethical standards in such communication (Bowen, Rawlins, & Martin, 2010). Propaganda and persuasion have a significant influence on the attitudes of the public, particularly when such persuasions and propaganda are associated with the publics’ favourite brands (Toth, 2013).

In a one-way and asymmetric two-way communication, the public interest may be side-lined by the organisations that engage in PR activities. Ethical conduct is important because the public ought to receive genuine and honest information regarding a particular organisation so that the public may develop an honest attitude towards that organisation (L'Etang, 2012).

Conclusion

The functionalist perspective of PR does not give the full story of PR particularly because it is confrontational and proactive with regard to the responsibility of the organisations sponsoring PR. Ideally, critical perspectives gives the full story especially because it encompasses the public, the media, and the sponsoring organization, crisis management, corporate responsibility, lobbying, effectiveness of communication, and marketing of the corporate image. Additionally, critical perspective looks at organizational needs vis-à-vis reality, which tends to inject some level of symmetry. However, its implementation may only appear excellent in theory but practical implementation may be difficult due to ethical dilemmas associated with it. Unlike the functionalist perspective that focuses on the purpose of the communication, the critical perspectives’ focus is on identifying the parties whose interests are being served in a particular PR activity (L’Etang, 2014).

The critical and functional perspectives are similar in the sense that they both address the significant role that the sponsoring organisation plays in the PR communications. However, the critical perspective of PR materialised in an attempt to counter the one-dimensional nature of PR that was laced with over-idealistic frameworks and judgments. The functional perspective is different in the sense that it is one-dimensional in its approach by looking at PR from the perspective of the sponsoring organisation only. Accordingly, L’Etang’s sentiments are important in the analysis of the functionalist and critical perspectives of PR because they bring out CSR and ethical issues in PR (James, 2009).