Different Impacts of the Print Technology - Research Paper Example

Social, economic, political and culture impact of media technology Institution: Name: Table of Contents Table of Contents 2 Introduction 3 Background: The Printing Press 4 Social, economic, political and cultural impacts 5 Economic impacts 5 Reduced cost of information access 5 Capitalist economic growth 6 Systematic and planned economic growth of nations 6 Urban development 8 Social and Cultural Impacts 9 Oral culture 9 Uniformity of cultures 9 Culture of individualism 10 Intellectual growth 10 Rise of radicalism 11 Diffusion of complex business practices 12 Development of divergent social classes 12 Political Impacts 14 Culture of nationalism 14 Public communication 14 Public agenda-setting 15 Shaping public opinion 16 Conclusion 16 References 17 Introduction Most of the features that characterise the modern world’s social, political, and economic development are based on the foundations provided by the history of the modern day moveable-type digital print technology. Indeed, as early as the 16th century, it was not possible for anyone to prosper or acquire social and political influence without some level of literacy. It is argued that this was greatly influenced by the invention of print technology in the 15th century. The resulting availability of information facilitated greater scientific advancement, since it implied that social, political, and economic ideas were readily accessible (Dittmar, 2009). Accordingly, the greatest innovation in the early modern communication and media technology was the printing press between 1450 and 1500, when the technology spread across Europe and ultimately to America and other parts of the world. In the period, the price of books plummeted by almost two-thirds, hence changing the methods of creation of intellectual work and information dissemination. To this end, historians assert that the printing press is among the most revolutionary communication and media technology in human history (Dittmar, 2011). A slightly conservative explanation is that compared to the social impacts, the political and economic impacts of the print media were narrow from the outset. Even so, the argument does not attempt to determine the positive externalities in connection to the spread of the printing press (Dittmar, 2011). It therefore begs to question whether the print technology actually led to the emergence or transformation of new ways of disseminating ideas, accumulating human capital developed and the emergence superior business practice, and whether these changed the modern societies, starting from 1500. This research paper explores the social, economic, political and cultural impacts of the print technology from 1500 to the present day, with particular reference to the emergence or transformation of the public sphere and modernity. Background: The Printing Press In 1450, Johannes Gutenberg invented the first printing press in Mainz, Germany. The period between 1450 and 1500 marked the first diffusion of the press across Europe. The distance from Mainz characterised the early adoption of the technology. The geographic pattern of the printing press diffusion indicated variation in adoption. The development of typefaces followed in 1470 and in 1530, the first foundry was opened by Claude Garamond, whose typefaces were sold across Europe (Dittmar, 2009). The Industrial Revolution of the 1800s ushered in a new era of publication following Lord Stanhope’s invention of the cast-iron printing press. The first halftone was developed in 1880 marking the printing of the first photo and revolutionising the tabloids, such as New York Daily Mirror. The period also marked the emergence of media barons, such as William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer who ran publishing houses and advertising agencies. The two later became politicians (Eisenstein, 1980). On the other hand, the newspapers became instrumental tools for stirring public interest and the print media’s popularity. The first electric typewriter was invented in 1935, which became extremely popular in the political, personal, and business worlds. Digitization of the print media started in the 1960s following the invention of computer (Eisenstein, 1980). Corporations like General Electric soon discovered that they would only acquire competitive advantages when they use printed graphics in their advertisements. Later, development of computer software made print media more accessible. Social, economic, political and cultural impacts Economic impacts Reduced cost of information access The print technology lowered the cost of information access. Analysis of economic historians reveals divergence of opinions on the degree to which the movable printing press defined revolutionary innovations (Cosgel et al. 2012). While placing emphasis on the technical aspects of the movable printing press, Mokyr (2005) explains that this technology made a quantum leap between 1500 and 1800, as it started to press down the price of information. A similar trend is perceivable in the modern society, where the cost of accessing information is greatly lowered by the public libraries and printable information from the internet (Winston, 1999). As observed by Mokyr (2005), accessing information depends greatly on the costs of accessing information and knowledge. Hence, mass production of books through printing caused significant access-cost-reducing innovations. This argument is supported by Baten and Zanden (2008) who examined the historic economic growth of the printing press and its correlation to the growth of the national wages due to mass production of printed books. Capitalist economic growth Among the economic arguments on world’s transition to capitalist economic growth is based greatly on the transformation of the print technology. This perspective is based on the Unified Growth theory, which postulates that transformations in technology and demography can trigger the emergence of industrial revolution, as well as the modern economic growth after increased returns to human capital (Dittmar, 2011). While it is suggested that population growth could have also driven the innovations of the industrial revolution, some analysts such as Mokyr (2002) showed that the fundamental key to the occurrence of the Industrial Revolution is due to the scientific revolution of the 17th century and the era of Enlightenment in the 18th century, both of whose underlying triggers was the diffusion of movable print technology. Indeed, it is historically claimed that the printing press caused such intellectual developments, as it enhanced the process of sharing ideas and information that are tied to technological advancements and increased literacy rates. Such information sharing ideas characterise the modern world. Hence, it can be reasoned that the modern concept of social networking has its origin in the print technology (Lardbucket.org, 2012). Systematic and planned economic growth of nations The print technology contributed to systematic and planned economic growth of nations in the modern world. Macroeconomic studies have emphasised the fundamental role that ideas disseminated through printed materials played in economic growth (Dittmar, 2009). Additionally, some strands in economic thought have structured the development of the print technology as characterised by processes where existing ideas were combined to create new ideas. This reflects the arguments postulated by the Recombinant Growth Theory, which suggests that the fundamental changes in the state of intellectual, work on the ways in which ideas can be disseminated and exchanged (Dittmar, 2011). Despite the fact that the book sector was relatively small between 1500 and 1900, it should not be expected that the print technology had minimal effects on economic productivity. However, as stated by Clark (2001), the collective perspective does not present an absolute picture of the technological dynamism of the economy. For instance, assuming that the innovations that triggered the Industrial Revolution, happened randomly across many economic sectors (namely clocks, books, painting, navigation and shipping) and in areas with low price elasticity by chance, then the technological dynamism could not be reflected based on output per capita. Hence, the print technology could only have had large economic impact incrementally over time. In addition, the economic impacts of print technology in causing national growth have, however, been slow. Some historians and economists have argued that there is no evidence indicating the impact of the print technology in measures of per capita income or aggregate productivity until mid-1990s, after the computer-based communication technologies started to be used publicly. According to Clark (2001), no historical evidence supports the value of national economies, immediately after Gutenberg’s print technology was introduced between 1450 and 1500. According to him, the economic advantages on national levels started to be felt more than two centuries later. This perspective is supported by Mokyr (2005) who points out that the aggregate sales of the printed materials were small and that the technology’s full potential could only be explored after two centuries had passed. A similar trend characterises the modern day economies where the contribution of the book sales to the national economies has been outpaced by sales of electronic equipment, such as laptops, mobile phones and desktop PCs. Urban development The print technology set pace for the growth of cities and ultimately to the present day city lifestyles. Some historians have regarded printing as an urban technology, since the market for printed media was substantially urban. Between 1500 and 1600, the European cities that adopted the printing technology grew by nearly 39 percent faster than those that had not (Dittmar, 2009). Initially, the cities that had implemented the technology did not benefit from such advantages. Additionally, the correlation between adoption of the technology and consequent growth was not necessarily because the printed texts had been exact in predicting growth of cities. Rather, it was because of the growing awareness and literacy rates. This continues to be felt in the modern societies where the high literacy rates contribute to pursuit of better lifestyles and employments in the cities. Historically, entrepreneurial, skilled workers travelled across Europe, such as from Mainz to establish printing presses in other cities. After its invention in Mainz, the printing technology rapidly diffused to other towns, such as Basel, Augsburg, Lubeck and Nurnberg, and by 1500, more than 60 towns in Germany had printing presses (Dittmar, 2009). Afterwards, the technology spread to Sweden, Danzig, Britain, Russia and Rostock. The same feature characterises the modern world, where most large scale publishing houses and information hubs are based in the urban centres (Rand, 2014). Economists who examined the migratory trends in regards to printing emphasized the significance of cities. According to Lucas (1988), the spill overs linked to the human capital accumulation and economic growth is what defines the major roles of cities when it comes to city life. Social and Cultural Impacts Oral culture Among the initial social impacts of print technology was the disappearance of the village storyteller. Even so, this did not have a dramatic effect, as they were replaced by the literate reader who read audibly to the illiterate majority. The materials applied in reading included many cheap printed textbooks that were produced in mass during the period (Lister et al., 2009). The tradition of storytelling was replaced by the oral culture that gained immediate prominence. This attribute is predominant the modern news broadcasting agencies, where news is read to the public through radios and television. Evans (n.d.) explained that in the case of Britain, it was until 1870 when the Education Act was enacted, making education compulsory. These had far-reaching effects which have characterised the modern society. The related changing of the cultural climate increased industrialisation, which implied that all factory workers had to be literate. In fact, this marked the origin of having academic qualifications as criteria for employment in the modern society. Uniformity of cultures As reflected by Marshall McLuhan in his book ‘The Gutenberg Galaxy’, the print technology shortened human memories (McLuhan, 1962). According to him, this is since human began to rely more on information stored in books. This perception is reflected in his theory of ‘human perceptions of time and space.’ Evans (n.d.) used the same perspective to argue that the same characterised the modern societies. According to his analysis, the justifying aspects of print culture promoted the need to print time tables and maps, as well as augmented the significance of painting. As a result, it triggered the craving for lifestyles that reflected rigidity and uniformity. To this end, it can be reasoned that the intricate systems of cataloguing and indexing that characterise modern record-keeping and library science came to the fore. Culture of individualism The print technology also promoted the cultures of individualism. In promoting this perspective, Marshall McLuhan dubbed the print technology the ‘technology of individualism’ (McLuhan, 1962). On analysis of his arguments, in promoting this perspective, it is deduced that this is since the printed texts contributed to the culture of silent reading as more people could access printed materials. The same view can be reflected on the modern society where the practice of individualism and personal privacy, while reading printed texts, predominates. Intellectual growth A number of longitudinal surveys have explored the roles of the movable printing press in causing revolutionary social impacts, such as intellectualism. Dittmar (2009) portrayed the technology as among the three greatest technological revolutions that characterised the period between 1500 and 1800. Others included navigation and artillery. Invention of the printing press and its subsequent innovations such as the movable print technologies triggered radical transformations in the intellectual fields, in the histories of modern civilization (Flichy, 2008). Among the major outcomes included the diffusion of knowledge and ideas surpassing any transformations that has been realised since the invention of writing. (Flichy (2008) remarks that it led to the modern-day trends by social scientists or scholars to rely on the facts presented in print to base their analyses. Despite this, historians who examined the diffusion of the printing press presented more mixed reviews. According to Eisenstein (1980), the invention of the movable print technology triggered a new cultural era that diffused ideas, hence causing scattered ideas and facilitating new possibilities for collaborative intellectual activity. His emphasis was, however, that the changes that the technology brought were gradual. Print technology is associated with intellectual growth and literacy in the society. In the modern-day society, most schools still use textbooks in deriving knowledge, despite the emergence of digital media. Evans (n.d.) explains that Neil Postman’s writing of 1980s theorised the impacts of print technology on education. Postman claimed that the invention of the printing press and the resulting literate society that it facilitated divided the literate and non-illiterate people. Additionally, merchants who participated in large-scale and long distance trade, in addition to numeracy and the capacity to manage complicated accounts. As observed by Evans (n.d.), after the movable type printing was invented, most presses in European cities published streams of commercial arithmetic. Indeed, the arithmetic marked the European renaissance as indicated by the large production of mathematics textbooks for students who studied maths. Treviso Arithmetic that was printed in 1478 became the first known printed mathematics text. Others include the Portuguese arithmetic of 1519 by Gaspar Nicolas. Rise of radicalism The print technology also led to the rise of humanism and intellectual thought linked to reformation. However, an observation is made that through popularising of the long-held beliefs and support of old prejudices, it appears to have contributed to the social inertia that catapulted opposition to new ideas, hence it should not be argued that the print technology only escalated the acceptance of new ideas. Diffusion of complex business practices The print technology is also linked to the diffusion of advanced business practice. For instance, Summa de Arithmetica was published in 1494 by Venetian Printers. The book’s content included double-entry book-keeping. Some social scientists have emphasise the significance of double-entry book-keeping in promoting inventions from the 20th century, when it was claimed to have contributed to the rise of rational business practice. In 1589, British printers published Marchant's Avizo by John Browne, which offered guidance on cross-cultural communication and business practice. This trend is today reflected in the modern societies when the commerce handbooks, with integrated instructions in commercial and accounting arithmetic, are applied in business practice. Development of divergent social classes The print technology is also linked to the growth of new bourgeois preferences, competencies and perspectives. The books were mainly marketed and bought by the middle class people who lived in urban areas. The printing technologies spread to meet the rising demand for books -- between 1450 and 1500 -- by the working class people, such as the teachers, doctors, lawyers and government officials who stayed and worked in the cities. Consequently, individuals were taught how to read and write so as to be able to manage their businesses and to undertake civic affairs. This increased the number or schools and colleges. Due to these, a culture emerged where schooling in a particular language started to be considered as an element of progression. Accordingly, Latin was taught in schools. At the same time, the availability of cheap texts became a precondition for the diffusion of literacy in Europe. In the 16th century, it became a culture that children from the bourgeoisie families had to attend schools. Additionally, elementary education started to be preferred by all individuals who looked to raise themselves in the world. Such a form or mobility that was depended on literacy and education became the typical mobility of the city-dwellers, which is still seen today. In broad terms, the new print technology was linked to the development of the culture of information exchange, in addition to the emerging of the bourgeois or urban public life. The print technology has also been criticised for contributing to social isolation. This alarm was first raised by Swiss scientist, called Conrad Gessner, on the effects of print media in causing social isolation in the 16th century. Related concerns were raised in the 18th century during the rise of newspapers (Bell, 2010). The argument was that getting news from the printed papers socially isolated people and prevented them from spiritual strengthening the collective practice of acquiring news from the pulpit. More than 100 years later in 1883, literacy became crucial in British schools. In the modern society, achieving literacy has become a key policy for most nations (Bell, 2010). Despite the advantages, some researchers criticised education for promoting mental health risks (Bell, 2010). For instance, an article published then in Sanitarian, a weekly medical journal, claimed that in addition to exhausting children’s brains with intricate studies, printed texts ruined their physical health through protracted imprisonment (Bell, 2010). Political Impacts Culture of nationalism The print technology has also contributed to increased government control by making print media an implement of political centralism, through unification of different dialects (McLuhan, 1962). A case of uniformity includes the Book of Homilies which was made compulsory to read at each pulpit. Indeed, by causing increased rates of literacy, it unified different regional dialects that promote an awareness of nationalism. This was further triggered by the printing of maps that allowed people to have a visual appreciation of their nations. In the modern day, this has also had far-reaching effects in promoting the culture of nationalism, as people are more aware of their national boundaries, resources, and people. Therefore, in promoting the consumption of literary materials, sense of nationalism promoted uniformity and nationalism. Public communication The print technology is associated with the emergence of public communication, which refers to the open exchange of ideas perceptible by a larger audience, and which is organised and structured based on some formal format and criteria (Christiane, 1997). Since 1500, public opinion became more visible due to the contributions made by several actors who advanced their views on particular issues in the print media. While such contributions covered a range of issues or centred on just a few issues, they represented dissonant and consonant opinions. According to Eilders (1997), the print media has influenced the modern day deliberations, limiting face to face interactions. The political pundits talk to the public using print media such as newspapers in order to reach a mass audience. The print media engages actors in the political processes in deliberating issues of public concern. This situation can be explained by the media autonomous contribution and neutral dissemination, leading the perception of the media as a diffusion factor in political communication (Park et al. 2014). The autonomous contribution points to the arguments of neutral information dissemination and its role in contributing to the political discourse as an independent player (Riaz, 2010). Rather than merely function as neutral transmitter of ideas, they also interpret and review the issues, events and opinions disseminated. Public agenda-setting The print technology has since 1500 played the role of agenda-setting. As observed by Eilders (1997), the print media impact on matters that are of public interest is basically concerned with political agenda-setting or agenda-building. This refers to the impacts of the print media content on issues that are outstanding in the public sphere or among the political actors and the policy itself. The print media is conceptualised as among the most likely influences on policies (Riaz, 2010). Agenda-building researchers have acknowledged the interactive features of the correlation between the political agendas and the print media, rather than necessarily address either side of interactions. In spite of the justifiable research interest in agenda-setting being one-directional, empirical analyses have taken two-directional processes into consideration. Since 1500, the print technology has played a fundamental role in shaping the public opinion. Early studies have also explored the impacts of print media. In a study by Eilders (1997), the political actors surveyed acknowledged that they had used the print media to shape public sentiment and public opinion. Eilders (1997) concluded that the news media served as the source of ideas on public opinion and even functioned as surrogates for it. Shaping public opinion There is evidence suggesting the impact of print media on shaping the public opinion, which in turn impacts policies. Some studies empirically investigated the issue. In analysis of changes in public opinion in the United States, based on poll data from 1949 to 1990, Eilders (1997) established significant responsiveness of the political system to the print media. Some 60 percent of the opinion changes, resulted from efforts of the print newspapers to shape public opinion. Elders (1997) observed that the print media significantly stimulated the public opinion. Conclusion Tracing the history of the modern-day movable-type digital print technology from 1500 reveals that the technology impacted most transformations that today characterise the modern world’s social, political, and economic conditions. Compared to the social impacts, the political and economic impacts of the print media were narrow from the outset. The print technology lowered the cost of information access. Additionally, the world’s transition to capitalist economic growth is based greatly on the transformation of the print technology. The print technology contributed to systematic and planned economic growth of nations in the modern world. On the other hand, the growth of cities, national economies and modern day societies are linked to the augmented information sharing, technological spill overs that resulted from the effects of the print technology. The European cities are argued to have played a central role in contributing to the rise of idea-based modern capitalist economic growth. Consequently, the urban life paved the way for social interaction, hence strengthening information circulation and in turn contributing to technological innovations. The sizes of cities were historically significant indicators of economic prosperity. In which case, multi-ethnic city growth was linked to macroeconomic growth. The print technology also promoted the cultures of individualism, Culture of nationalism, Public communication, Public agenda-setting, and the shaping public opinion. References Baten, J. & Zanden, J (2008). Book production and the onset of modern economic growth. Journal of Economic Growth, 3(1), 217-235. Bell, V. (2010). Don't Touch That Dial!: A history of media technology scares, from the printing press to Facebook. Retrieved: Clark, G. (2001).The Secret History of the Industrial Revolution. Working Paper, UC Davis. Cosgel, M., Miceli, T. & Rubin, J. (2012). The Political Economy of Mass Printing: Legitimacy and Technological Change in the Ottoman Empire. University of Connecticut Working Paper 2010-02R Dittmar, J. (2009). Ideas, Technology, and Economic Change: The Impact of the Printing Press. Retrieved: Dittmar, J. (2011). Information Technology and Economic Change: The Impact Of The Printing Press. Retrieved: Eisenstein, E. (1980). -The Printing Press as an Agent of Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Pres Elders, C. (1997). The impact of editorial content on the political agenda in Germany: theoretical assumptions and open questions regarding a neglected subject in mass communication research, Institutionen und Vermittlungsprozesse des Wissenschaftszentrums Berlin für Sozialforschun, No. FS III 97-102 Evans, D. (n.d.). A Critical Examination of Claims Concerning The ‘Impact’ of Print. retrieved: Flichy, P. (2008). New Media History. Retrieved: Lister, M, Dovey, J, Giddings, S, Grant, I & Kelly, K. (2009). New Media: A critical Introduction. New York: Routledge Lucas, R. (1988). On the Mechanics of Economic Development. Journal of Monetary Economics 22, 3-42 McLuhan, M. (1962). The Gutenberg Galaxy. New York: Routledge. Lardbucket.org (2012). Technological Advances: From the Printing Press to the iPhone. retrieved: Mokyr, J. (2002). The Gifts of Athena: Historical Origins of the Knowledge Economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Mokyr, J. (2005). Long-Term Economic Growth and the History of Technology. The Handbook of Economic Growth. Elsevier. Park, D., Jankowski, N. & Jones, S. (2014). Introduction: History and New Media. Retrieved: Rand. (2014). The Information Age and the Printing Press: Looking Backward to See Ahead. Retrieved: Riaz, S. (2010). Effects of New Media Technologies on Political Communication. Journal of Political Studies, 1(2), 161-173 Sophiewillborn. (2011). A Short History of Print Media. retrieved: < http://sophiewillborn.edublogs.org/2011/03/15/a-short-history-of-print-media/> Winston, B. (1999). Media Technology and Society a History: From the Telegraph to the Internet. London: Routledge Publishers Read More

The period also marked the emergence of media barons, such as William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer who ran publishing houses and advertising agencies. The two later became politicians (Eisenstein, 1980). On the other hand, the newspapers became instrumental tools for stirring public interest and the print media’s popularity. The first electric typewriter was invented in 1935, which became extremely popular in the political, personal, and business worlds. Digitization of the print media started in the 1960s following the invention of computer (Eisenstein, 1980).

Corporations like General Electric soon discovered that they would only acquire competitive advantages when they use printed graphics in their advertisements. Later, development of computer software made print media more accessible. Social, economic, political and cultural impacts Economic impacts Reduced cost of information access The print technology lowered the cost of information access. Analysis of economic historians reveals divergence of opinions on the degree to which the movable printing press defined revolutionary innovations (Cosgel et al. 2012). While placing emphasis on the technical aspects of the movable printing press, Mokyr (2005) explains that this technology made a quantum leap between 1500 and 1800, as it started to press down the price of information.

A similar trend is perceivable in the modern society, where the cost of accessing information is greatly lowered by the public libraries and printable information from the internet (Winston, 1999). As observed by Mokyr (2005), accessing information depends greatly on the costs of accessing information and knowledge. Hence, mass production of books through printing caused significant access-cost-reducing innovations. This argument is supported by Baten and Zanden (2008) who examined the historic economic growth of the printing press and its correlation to the growth of the national wages due to mass production of printed books.

Capitalist economic growth Among the economic arguments on world’s transition to capitalist economic growth is based greatly on the transformation of the print technology. This perspective is based on the Unified Growth theory, which postulates that transformations in technology and demography can trigger the emergence of industrial revolution, as well as the modern economic growth after increased returns to human capital (Dittmar, 2011). While it is suggested that population growth could have also driven the innovations of the industrial revolution, some analysts such as Mokyr (2002) showed that the fundamental key to the occurrence of the Industrial Revolution is due to the scientific revolution of the 17th century and the era of Enlightenment in the 18th century, both of whose underlying triggers was the diffusion of movable print technology.

Indeed, it is historically claimed that the printing press caused such intellectual developments, as it enhanced the process of sharing ideas and information that are tied to technological advancements and increased literacy rates. Such information sharing ideas characterise the modern world. Hence, it can be reasoned that the modern concept of social networking has its origin in the print technology (Lardbucket.org, 2012). Systematic and planned economic growth of nations The print technology contributed to systematic and planned economic growth of nations in the modern world.

Macroeconomic studies have emphasised the fundamental role that ideas disseminated through printed materials played in economic growth (Dittmar, 2009). Additionally, some strands in economic thought have structured the development of the print technology as characterised by processes where existing ideas were combined to create new ideas. This reflects the arguments postulated by the Recombinant Growth Theory, which suggests that the fundamental changes in the state of intellectual, work on the ways in which ideas can be disseminated and exchanged (Dittmar, 2011).

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