Early Arranged Marriage in Ethiopia - Research Paper Example

Chapter I Introduction 1 Background Early and forced marriage of girls has been recognized as a violation of human rights. Even when the marriageage globally has been increasing, according to Amin (2011), a combination of economic and social factors influences the marriage decision. In other words, nexus between gender and poverty results in early marriage of girls on certain parts of the world. Violation of human rights thus manifests in lack of education, forced sex, and domestic violence. Early marriages are commonly found in sub-Saharan Africa and South-east Asia (Alemu, 2007). One of the highest rates of early marriage has been found in Ethiopia where every second girl is married before she attains the age of 18, and every 5th girl before the age of 15 (Hervish, 2011). Law does exist stipulating the minimum age for marriage and the requirement of consent of both individuals involved, but it is hardly enforced. Based on the African Charter, Alemu (2007) highlights that early marriage amounts to violation of the fundamental rights of a child. Article 21 of the 1990 African Charter on the Right and Welfare of the Child clearly states that “Child marriage and betrothal of girls and boys shall be prohibited and effective action including legislation shall be taken to specify the minimum age of marriage to be 18 years” (Alemu, 2007). In addition, the Maputo Protocol on the Rights of Women in Africa (October 2005) and the newly adopted criminal law of Ethiopia (2005) stipulate the minimum age for marriage to be 18 years and that marriage has to be under full consent of both parties. It appears that the consent of both parties is interpreted as consent of the parents and not of the two individuals concerned, because the girls have no power to take their own decisions. Several government and non-government social organizations have been working towards reducing the incidences of early marriage in the developing world. Department of International Development finds that early marriage for girls is not a choice but it just happens to them under physical and psychological coercion (Gov.UK, 2013). International Center for Research on Women (ICRW, 2013) states that even though Ethiopia has made significant improvements in gender parity in primary education, the male counterparts are given preference. Ethiopia Ethiopia has experienced strong economic growth in the past decades but continues to be one of the world’s poorest countries (Jones et al, 2014). Ethiopia has a population of 96,633,438 people. Out of this, 19.9% are between the ages 15-24 or the bracket of young people (CIA World Fact, 2014). This bracket of young people is the most vulnerable group exposed to the social system. Located in the north-eastern part of Africa, Ethiopia is the second most populated but least urbanized country in sub-Sahara Africa (UN Habitat, 2008). CIA World Fact (2014) cites excess mortality due to HIV/AIDS resulting in lower life expectancy, higher death rate and low population growth rates. Life expectancy of Ethiopian population is only 60.75 years that is considered short (ranks 193 in world comparison). Maternal mortality rate is 350 deaths to every 100,000 live births, while infant mortality rate is 55.77 percent. All these could be possible consequences of early marriage and early motherhood. Amhara in Ethiopia has been identified as having the highest prevalence of early marriage where even 28% of the urban women were married before the age of fifteen (Alemu, 2007). In contrast, Addis Ababa, the capital district of Ethiopia with 30% of urban population ranks lowest in young marriages in Ethiopia (Hervish, 2011). Chart 1 shows the percentage of young marriages by region in Ethiopia. Knowledge and respect for law is limited among the citizens in Ethiopia, which is instrumental in early child marriages. Ban on early marriage is being ignored as women remain indifferent to change in regions such as Yinsa in Ethiopia (Wilson, 2007). This also is a consequence of illiteracy and low levels of education among the people. ICRW (2013) finds a strong linkage between education and delayed marriage. Chart 1.1 Source: Population Council and UNFPA (2005 cited in Hervish, 2011). 1.2 Statement of the Problem In the Ethiopian communities, early marriage is a deep-rooted stigma, presumably the result of poverty, lack of education, economic opportunities and social customs, all of which constrain the girls and women from exercising their basic rights (Hervish, 2011). Under the circumstances, fulfilment of needs is a secondary issue when the basic rights itself is not granted. World Health Organization (WHO) (2011) reports the findings of United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) that between 2011 and 2020 140 million girls will become child brides, which amounts to 39,000 child marriages every day. While the ill-effects and consequences of early marriage are well documented and recognized, little progress has been made towards ending the practice of early marriage (WHO, 2011). 1.3 Purpose of the Study Department for International Development and The Rt Hon Justine Greening is developing programmes to delay early child marriage in Ethiopia focusing in the Amhara region (Giv.UK, 2013). There have been encouraging suggestions from different organizations that it is possible to reduce such indices although it requires a concerted effort of parents, government, decision makers, and religious leaders as well. Within Ethiopia, the Berhane Hewan program ("Light for Eve" in Amharic) carried out by the Population Council, has been taking definite steps towards delayed marriage (Hervish, 2011). However, despite the intervention of worldwide organizations, things have been slow to change. The available literature suggests a gap in knowledge on approaches to end early marriages. Focus appears to be in initiatives through schools and education although parental pressure and pressure from the community and religious leaders appears to be the most significant cause of early marriages (Alemu, 2013). While education can be a strong influence on decisions, it appears that the parents’ opinion needs to be changed. The root cause of early marriage can be traced to the girl’s – why the households decide to marry off their daughters early. While Hervish (2011) indicates that concerted efforts are required, there appears to be lack of knowledge and information on how this could be achieved. 1.4 Research Question Can educating the parents and the elders in the community be more effective than child education in delaying marriages in Ethiopia? 1.5 Research Aims and Objectives Based on the above rationale, this study thus aims to explore how focusing on a change of mindset of parents and the elderly in the community could facilitate the initiatives already being taken by different social organizations. The study objectives are: To critically evaluate the cause of early marriage in Ethiopia To explore the long-term implications of early marriage on physical and mental well-being of the population To investigate into the contribution of parents and community elders in delaying marriages 1.6 Significance of the Study Most studies reviewed have focused on linking education and delayed marriages. Efforts are being made for more than a decade and the results have been poor. No study has been found that tries to exert influence on parents through coercion and education to reconsider and understand the changed situation. This can bring about a culture change in the society without which delayed marriages may not be possible. This study is expected to lead to new knowledge generation on the contribution and role of parents and the community leaders in delaying marriage. 1.7 Chapter Summary Key points in this chapter are – violation of human rights in early marriage, laws and regulations on child marriage are ignored, ill effects of early marriage are well-document but no progress seen in delaying marriages (WHO, 2011). Parental role has been found to be significant in early marriage (Alemu, 2007). Based on these key issues, literature in the next chapter has been reviewed to explore the root cause of early marriage and how this could be combatted. Historical perspective on early marriage could provide insight into the root causes and perhaps help find a solution. Chapter II Literature Review Based on the research questions and objectives, in this chapter literature relevant to the issue have been identified. After listing the historical perspective of early marriage, the causes and consequences of early marriage have also been discussed. Afrocentric perspective has been highlighted that has helped in developing frame work for the study. 2.1 Historical Perspective Early marriage has been generally contracted between two families as a verbal agreement. Alemu (2007) describes of three types of marriages in Ethiopia, which include: Promissory Marriage – a verbal promise made by parents during childbirth or early infancy to get their children married Child Marriage – children are married before they attain the age of ten Adolescent Marriage – involves girls between the age of 10 and 15 In some cases the girl moves to her husband’s house immediately after marriage; in other cases she stays with her parents until she is matured enough to move on (Alemu, 2007). However, the husbands are much older than their young wives in most cases. It has also been found that the husbands in most cases, had been married before, and in some cases married twice or more. Early marriage is a human rights violation and this has been recognized universally. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights has been adopted, according to a report of BBC World Service (n.d.) which has been proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948. Art. 16, Sections 1 and 2 specifically state: “Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution”. Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses”. However, the pervasiveness of child marriages is so deep in some societies that it is rarely looked upon as violation of human rights (BBC World Service, n.d.). As per this report, UNICEF, an organization dedicated to the development of children, has been urging societies to end child marriages as it not only deprives them of the rights of freedom but also subjects them to the risks of unwanted diseases and emotional problems. Even though many people do not agree with the concept of early marriage, population in Northern Ethiopia continue to conform to this tradition as they consider it to be a means to secure their own and their child’s future (Dagne, 1994). Early marriage is also viewed as a means to avoid stigmatisation, prevent pre-marital sex and raise the family status. In the current situation, early marriage is defined as the as any union between individuals under the age of 18 years, this being the minimum legal age of marriage and the age of majority in Ethiopia (Boyden, Pankhurst & Tafere, 2012). In recent times, occurrences of early marriage have decreased as also the age of marriage increased (Giday, 2006). According to Erulkar (2013) early marriage (defined as marriage before the age of 18) is generally declining worldwide but a substantial proportion of girls in the Sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia continue to be married before their 18th birthday. The Berhane Hewan program carried out by the Population Council has achieved some success in child marriage prevention. Dagne (1994) found difference in the actual practice than the attitude of people in Northern Ethiopia. Only 37% of the surveyed population supported the practice of early marriage but most parents in their respective areas practice early marriage. This suggests some compulsion or fear of going against the traditional norms. Mikhail (2010) likens early marriage to child prostitution as it curtails their freedom while also causing economic woes. Mikhail further highlights the contrasting malady – marriage should be honourable whereas child prostitution is a disgrace. Both these instances are however, are the result of social and economic helplessness of children. Causes of Early Marriage Reasons for early and forced marriages could vary in different contexts but certain underlying cause include girls’ lack of power and low value placed on a girl child in developing nations (Gov.UK, 2013). Girls are expected to behave a in a defined manner in the society and their role is too defined by the society. Besides, early marriages are more prevalent in families with low income and those below the poverty line. Thus, girls do not have access to economic opportunities or alternative education. Early marriage is also viewed as a form of protection for the girl child as it helps mitigate threats of sexual violence and the consequent family shame. According to a study conducted by Pathfinder International in 2006 in Ethiopia, the desire to maintain good family name and social standing was the strongest motivation for early girl marriages (Alemu, 2007). The high cost of raising the children (food, clothing, education and healthcare) is also seen as an influencing cause of early marriage (Jensen & Thornton, 2003). When a family has too many children girls are considered to be economic burdens and early marriage is a solution. Death of the primary bread earner also forces households with grandparents as the head, to marry off the girls early. In regions with high incidences of crime and violence, early marriage is seen as a measure of safety and protection. Another important reason found by Dagne (1994) is that parents want to secure their child’s future before the parents become old. Besides, if the girl child is not married by the society-defined age, the family becomes the subject of gossip. The girl child too is considered ‘cheap’ ‘left-over’ and ‘unwanted’. In other words, late marriage would indicate that the girl has lost her virginity, which is another cause for gossip and marginalization. Otoo-Oyortey and Pobi (2003) link early marriage to poverty. While poverty is characterized by both social and economic factors, the authors consider social factors leading to gender disparities. In wealthier countries girls have equal rights to education, further training and employment opportunities. In such regions, early marriages are rare. Parental pressure and pressure from the elders in the community force girls into early marriage and in 85% of the cases, parents were found to have selected the husbands for their daughters (Alemu, 2007). Parents simply escape citing tradition as the reason for early marriage because the daughter’s success lies in making a good marriage. In some families, macha is an incentive. Macha is the money paid to the girl’s family by the boy’s family and families in financial distress get tempted to take advantage of this. Long-term Implications of early marriage The disadvantages of early marriage range from physical to mental, emotional and social devastation. Early marriage is most likely to result in early motherhood under social pressure to prove their fertility, which can have serious implications on physical health as the physical growth and development of young mothers is yet incomplete (Jensen & Thornton, 2003). It has also been found in a review of Demographic and Health Survey data from 51 countries that 90% of first births are to mothers younger than 18 and not to unwed mothers (Erulkar, 2013). Because of young age, these mothers could experience prolonged and obstructive labour and may be even death (Hervish, 2011). Early marriage is a barrier to education as girls are often forced to devote time to their new home or childbearing and fulfill new responsibilities (Jensen & Thornton, 2003). Decisions are always taken by others in the new household and it is even more difficult for girls to develop skills and take decisions for themselves (Dagne, 1994). Lack of education restricts their choices. Lack of awareness of contraception and with limited autonomy to influence decisions, these girls in early marriage can be subject to gender-based violence and marital rape as well. It also has a serious impact on their decision-making abilities (Alemu, 2007). Many such marriages end in divorce causing mental instability particularly among the women. The age of the wife at the time of the marriage influences the relationship with their husbands. Often the husbands are much older and the women are mostly incapable of asserting themselves or establishing their position in the family (Jensen & Thornton, 2003). Young brides experience disempowerment and lack of opportunities. Unequal partnerships, power dynamics and social isolation are some of the negative impacts of early marriage (Otoo-Oyortey & Pobi, 2003). The young brides are socially conditioned from childhood that women are inferior to men and any form of opposition leads to violence and further stigmatization. High age difference between the girl child and the husband often result in the girls becoming young widows. Based on Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) in Ethiopia (the most recent DHS being in 2005), early marriage heightens social and economic insecurity of girls as shown in the table below. Chart 2.1 Percent of 15-to-24-Year-Old Females Who Are Illiterate, by Marital Status Source: Hervish (2011) The wide age difference in early marriage leads to miscommunication between the couple as well as lack of mutual understanding (Alemu, 2013). By virtue of his age, the man exerts power over the woman. Afrocentric Perspective The African countries, and Ethiopia in particular, have experienced decades of poverty and famine, civil conflicts, and the history has been further compounded by authoritarian rule from imperial times (Camfiled & Tafere, 2011). Life expectancy and literacy have been extremely poor. Perhaps low life expectancy has been a strong determinant of early marriage as parents would like to ensure the safety and security of their children (Jensen & Thornton, 2003). While the consequences of early marriage are well documented and cannot be argued upon, the causes of early marriage the major concerns that need to be addressed. The African countries being economically weak, continue to adhere to the traditions and customs. Patriarchal system, traditional systems which view women as powerless, appear to be the main reasons leading to early marriage. Otoo-Oyortey and Pobi (2003) focuses on how preparing girls and young women through training and education could lead to empowerment. Education includes knowledge on sexual and reproductive health needs. This becomes essential in the African perspective because of the extreme poverty that families reel under. This may, to some extent alleviate the issue but unless the community and the society undergo a culture change, things would continue to move at a slow pace. The common themes that emerge in the causes of early marriage pertain to economic and social dimensions of poverty. Because of economic poverty, parents feel compelled to conduct early marriage of their girl child. Fear of their girl child and the family being stigmatized is also a consequence of poverty. These can be handled through addressing the social dimension of poverty. This implies that even if the family is unable to support school education of the girl child, some form of skills development is necessary for the girls to sustain themselves. Many studies focus on empowerment of women but unless the parents are convinced they would not allow the girls to step out for any form of skills development, rendering all government efforts futile. Theoretical Framework Skill development of young girls Counselling of parents, grandparents and elders in the community Formal education of both boys and girls so that boys also start refusing to get married early or stick to one marriage All these can be the drivers through the use of multiple media sources such as households, family structures, schools, public places such as health centers, societal organizations and institutions These will fetch the expected results such as capability to stand up to one’s rights, economic independence, physical well-being, sexual and reproductive health, emotional wellbeing, rational decision-making by parents and consequently delayed marriages. Chapter III Methodology Chapter IV Findings Using Amhara as the focus of research, findings and report from other research studies are gathered to form a basis for discussion. Amhara was chosen as a focal point for this study because it is the most populated and the most economically backward region of Ethiopia, and result could be a representative of other regions as well. 4.1 Traditions and Customs in Ethiopia Gender inequality continues to affect the Ethiopian society despite government legislations against child marriage and interventions by worldwide organizations (UN Habitat, 2008). Women are discriminated against in all aspects of aspects of life, right from birth to early adolescence, in education, marriage, and in adult life. Some of these practices could be avoided but due to low women’s representation, discrimination continues. Institutions such as the National Policy on Women established in 1993 have been taking initiatives towards discriminatory practices on women and improve awareness. Apart from trying to introduce equality of rights, the Regulatory framework also endorses discriminatory practices on marriage such as raising legal age from 15 to 18 years of age. All such suggestions and regulations continue to be ignored. Marriage of girls earlier than eighteen years old is an accepted standard among Ethiopians, and in some cases much younger than that age. 4.2 Findings from key studies Findings from two studies have been presented here but not much of statistics is being dealt with in this chapter. The issue is being dealt with the focus on the study objectives. A study by Pathfinder International/Ethiopia conducted a survey of all eligible females between 12 and 49 years of age among 1700 households in Amhara region (Giday, 2006). Data was gathered through structured questionnaire and qualitative information was gathered through focus group interviews, in-depth interviews with key informants and personal observation. In the Amhara region marriages continue to be conducted before the girls attain the stipulated age of 18 years. Like other parts of Ethiopia, awareness on the consequences of early marriage exists but family traditions appear to play a vital role in early marriages. The family is more concerned about its status in the community and hence the decision makers (mostly parents) try to give it the name of ‘safety and security’ of the girls. However, they are concerned that if a girl becomes ‘old’ for marriage, it is considered a failure on the part of the family. Through focus group interviews of girls from 1700 families in Amhara, Giday (2006) found that the girl’s family created a bond with the bridegroom’s family. Possibly this was to ensure that the entire process from discussions till the marriage was conducted smoothly. The girl’s family also ensures that the girl marries while she still has her virginity. This demonstrates the fear that the parents harbor because of the high incidences of HIV/AIDs. The fear of parents conform to the findings of Nawal (2006) that girls in Sub-Saharan Desert, ages 15 to 19 are more likely to be infected with HIV because of a single act of unprotected sexual intercourse. However, it has also been found by Nawal that parents try to protect their girls from promiscuity but married young girls are more likely to be infected with STDS and HIV virus than unmarried girls. The fear of parents is not unfounded as a report by World Health Organization (2010) estimates nearly 1.2 million people living with HIV/AIDS in Ethiopia. Since girls become vulnerable to free sex from the age of 15 onwards, this is the time that parents try to marry off their daughters. However, early marriage is not a solution to the problem. Several organizations have been contributing in creating awareness on the consequences of unprotected sex. What is also required simultaneously is educating the parents on the right upbringing of children from the beginning. Parents in Amhara have also been found to get their daughters married to men with large age difference (Giday, 2006). This according to Bruce and Clark (2003) puts the young married adolescent girls at particular risk of infection, possibly because the men have mostly been married before this marriage. Higher rate of infection could be related to young married girls having greater frequency of intercourse and lower use of condoms with married men who are more experienced and older and hence more likely to be HIV-positive (Erulkar, 2013). Besides, not all marriages in Amhara end up happily (Alemu, 2007). This awareness has to be instilled among the families so that age difference in marriage could be kept optimal. Early marriage results in girls having too many children, which impacts their own physical health apart from impacting the well-being of the children (Giday, 2006). Thus a chain effect ensues. However, contrary to the literature reviewed, Giday (2006) found that the theory of poverty linked to early marriage was refuted. Many of the families practicing early marriage are financially secure. Only an insignificant percent of families reported that they married early to collect a dowry. Awareness among the people exists of the consequences of early marriage; respondents also disapprove of the practice publicly but they continue to practice it. This is clearly a case of a social problem because laws and regulations have failed to awaken people. The causes of early marriage include instability, lack of education, lack of awareness, and vulnerability to HIV/Aids. Fear of insecurity prevails upon fear of law. The sanctity of marriage is lost; the purpose of marriage remains unknown. It is also surprising that these women were the ones that underwent the same torture of early marriage and would like to subject their daughters to the same process. This social practice has to be dealt as a social cause. Most studies and most organizations focus on educating and empowering women but since the prime decision makers are the men in the traditional households, perhaps men should be focused upon to bring awareness and to influence them to change their decisions. Another study by Erulkar (2013) studied early marriage in several regions of Ethiopia, including Amhara. Amhara is the second largest region in Ethiopia but has the highest rates of early marriage with the median age at marriage among females 12-49 is 14.4. Cultural beliefs and social norms continue to uphold the practice of early marriage in Amhara region. Contrary to the report of Pathfinder International (Giday, 2006), Erulkar (2013) finds that the bride’s family in the Amhara region receives gifts as marital exchange from the groom’s family. This suggests poverty but Giday reports that poverty was not cited as a reason for early marriage. Erulkar (2013) conducted a population-based survey in 2009-2010 among young people between the age of 12 and 24 in nine regions of Ethiopia, with Amhara being one of them. This close-ended questionnaire survey involved 10,080 males and females. Amongst all the regions, Amhara was found to have the highest number of women married (37%) before they reached the age of 15. Surprisingly, early marriage was the most prevalent among the Orthodox Christians (Ethiopia having a mix of Christians, Muslims, Protestants and others). The study also found that the younger the girl had been at marriage the more likely it was that her parents had no education. Ninety one percent of the fathers were found to be not educated, and these incidentally are the decision makers of the family. This suggests that the chain of no education or low education would continue if girls continued to be married before the age of 15. Amhara being a rural region, discussion with one’s spouse is rare, particularly among the Muslims. Besides, being married below the age of 15 has also been associated with having forced first sex with her spouse. Marriage by abduction is also prevalent in Ethiopia (Erulkar, 2013). While the young woman is out on normal activities such as fetching firewood or water, the abductor abducts her with the support of friends and family members. The young girl is then raped by the abductor or could even be gang raped after which the girl’s family has no alternative but to agree to marriage with the abductor as the girl’s marriageability is reduced. Possibly this fear of parents has been expressed by Giday (2006) as pre-marital sex. However, this is not voluntary sex and cannot be termed as pre-marital sex; this is forced sex and forced marriage. First forced sex, abduction, low level of education of parents are factors that demand attention from the social perspective. Law enforcement cannot change the mindset of people. This requires change of culture, change of thoughts and perceptions, and change in how one perceives oneself. It is only when one respects the self, can one respect others in the family or society. Chapter V Summary & Discussion 5.1 Summary 5.2 Implications for Social Work There are signs that things are changing which suggest that it is possible to put an end to early marriage in Ethiopia. Young women and the community members have become aware of the law and are trying to resist early marriage (Alemu, 2007). The Amhara Development Association (ADA)—with funding from the David & Lucile Packard Foundation in Ethiopia have also been taking initiatives to promote education, delay marriages and provide sexual and reproductive health education (SRH) within the school system (ICRW, 2013). Eradication efforts have to some extent changed attitudes among the people and reduced incidences have been found in Amara region. The median age of marriage has increased in the region (Boyden et al, 2012). The parents have to be made conscious of the fact that the girls are ill-equipped to handle the responsibilities that come with marriage. With limited education, knowledge and skills, they are not even aware what marriage is all about at the tender age of 15 or less. Alemu (2007) makes suggestions to further improve the situation and reduce the number of early marriages. 5.2 Limitations of the Study Study is only confined to Amhara region, as this one is the most populated and poorest region in Ethiopia. Study is also limited to a review of researches done by other trusted authors and worldwide organizations such as World Health organization, UNICEF, Population Commission, etc. as secondary sources of information. Primary source such as personal interview and survey could not be done due to limitations of access, budget and time. Instead, this paper examined surveys done by other authors on the subject. Read More