The Inverted U Theory - Example

Inverted U- Hypothesis Name Institution Inverted U- Hypothesis Inverted-U hypothesis affirms that performance gets better with increase in stimulation levels up to an optimum point after which it worsens. A little arousal and excitement has a positive impact on sport performance to an optimum level. Too much arousal leads to stress and anxiety (handout, p. 131). It is represented graphically, with performance level on the y-axis and arousal level on the x- axis. Optimum levels vary between individuals and tasks. Both arousal and anxiety leads to uncontrolled physiological and psychological responses (handout, p. 126). The zero point for the graph varies in different positions along the x-axis (handout, p. 131). This implies that arousal level that triggers performance varies. It varies among players and sport (handout, p. 130). For example, the arousal level that triggers X level of performance for one player may trigger a performance to a different level with another player. The same case applies to various sports. Anxiety levels for athletes who are referred to as practice players or chokers are high. These are those with low- self-esteem, low confidence and no previous success history. They perform poorer in contests than practice (handout, p. 126). Arousal turns to stress among athletes depending on how they interpret information. For example, a reprimand by the couch may threaten one athlete producing anxiety, while another may interpret it as a challenge instead of a threat. In addition, anxiety levels differ among athletes with different skills. Players with high skill levels and a winning history interpret arousal more positively than chokers. The inverted U-curve for skilled players has the zero point of the curve a certain distance on the x-axis. The curve does not start at zero point on the x-axis. This implies that experienced players are adapted to arousal and only high levels of it produce anxiety hence decline in performance. On the other hand, for practice players, the curve begins at zero point or just a small distance from the zero point along the x-axis. This implies that they are sensitive to arousal, with small levels producing a positive effect and a higher amount leading to anxiety (handout, p. 134). As practice players improve their skills, the starting point of the curve move more to the right, implying that they are adapting to higher anxiety levels. Relaxation prior to a competition is a secret to winning. Younger inexperienced athletes therefore need lower arousal so that they do not waste much energy in anxiety. They have poor skills in coping with anxiety. More skilled athletes control their emotions and perform well with higher anxiety levels (handout, p. 131). Additionally, high A-trait athletes need higher arousal to perform optimally compared to low A- trait athletes. A -trait individuals perceive circumstances more dangerous than they really are hence more susceptible to anxiety that low A- trait individuals. How an athlete interprets situations affects the performance. For example, one athlete may be unaffected by winning of an opponent while the other may have high anxiety (handout, p. 133). Athletes who get overexcited often narrow attention. This is failing to pay attention to details in the field, ignoring important information thus inaccurate decisions. Communication in the field is signaled, players need to indentify and correctly react to signals in the field if they have to perform. High arousal levels narrows an athletes’ focus to important signals and are able make rapid accurate decisions. This is with up to a certain level of arousal. Beyond this level, attention to these signals diminishes, declining performance hence the inverted U curve. Arousal optimal varies among different sports. For example, golf requires low arousal levels compared to baseball bating. Equally higher arousal level are needed for sprinting that the former two. Each of the three sports has arousal requirements different from each other. According to drive theory, performance is directly proportional to drive and habit strength. Habit strength is the dominant response and it is triggered by arousal. If the dominant response is correct, higher arousal will trigger better performance. However, if the dominant response is wrong, then more arousal triggers poor performance. Sport skills take a lot of time to master. For example, football, hockey, skiing, diving, gym and staking among others take time to master. Those that need less arousal also need precision, such as golf and bowling. Thus, every sport needs a unique kind of arousal for skills to be mastered. This arousal as well has an optimum level beyond which performance is negative. If optimal skill levels for different sports were plotted on an inverted U curve graph, curves for golf and archery would start so close to the zero mark along the x-axis while football, running and weight lifting far along the same axis. This is an indication of variation in levels of arousal needed for different sports. Optimal arousal levels are individual with every player and situation. Some need more arousal than others do but none needs no arousal. Among some individuals, most favorable arousal levels vary between prior to the competition and during the competition. The coach should therefore observe each player’s reaction to arousal levels and determine future treatments. However, the two scenarios conform to the inverted U curve (handout, p. 134). Negative arousal responses may be caused by over excitation or unpreparedness. Every individual has a different way of dealing mental preparedness, either alone or in teams. It is the coaches’ responsibility to prepare the players mentally. The inverted U curve cannot be changed no matter how well experienced an athlete is. The only possible thing to do is deal with responses to arousal. The competency to deal with anxiety improves with age (handout, p. 138). Balancing between complements and criticism is sensitive for athletes. Appreciating their past performance increases confidence and affects future performances. Arousal of athletes results to increased heartbeats, sweating and muscular tension. The couch should not go beyond optimal arousal, as these effects can be dangerous. To be able to draw the inverted U curve for athletes, a self-monitoring study is done. Athletes are asked to rate their feelings self-confidence, anxiety and arousal among others on a scale of one to ten. With this, they identify levels of intensity that associate with good or bad performance. The test is repeated over time and optimal arousal identified (handout, p. 135). There are certain factors affecting performance level- arousal relationship. Broadly, these factors are the skill, fitness, experience and personality of the athlete, the sport demand and difficulty level, cognitive appraisal of demands, resources, consequences and bodily reactions, physiological responses, and behavior for example retention of materials learned, decision making and perception. Thus, though taking the same shape, the inverted U curve for one athlete is very different from another athlete and varies with situations. Thus, the teamwork approach used by couches to prepare athletes ahead of competitions may not be the best for every athlete (handout, p.135). Though arousal and anxiety is good for competitive sports, couches and players have roles to play to alleviate negative anxiety. For example, athletes may choose to ignore anxiety in stressful situations. Couches on the other hand should help athletes deal with these situations. Internal focusing has two effects to athletes. To those with high confidence levels, positive feelings and expecting victory in a competition, internal focusing lowers anxiety, thus lasting longer within favorable arousal range. On the other hand, to the tense athletes, internal focusing increases anxiety hence poor performance (handout, p. 137). Injury to an athlete affects confidence levels hence performance. An injury may lead to ending the session or worse still ending a career in sports. Couches and trainers therefore should deal calmly with cases of injury. Reassuring the player that the injury will heal with time is a therapy that works well in boosting confidence. However, rebuking an athlete after injury only induces anxiety. Additionally, pressuring the team to maintain or beat pervious performance records induces anxiety. Previous records are beyond control by players and should not be discussed ahead of a competition (handout, p. 137). Players take after their couch, how a couch reacts to stressing situations affects the players. Couches should therefore remain calm in pressuring situation as well as realistic when dealing with stressful situations. Anxiety and arousal is metal digestion of information producing certain visible effects. How a player prepares the mind ahead of competition differs. Athletes should be allowed to prepare themselves mentally in a personal way. In addition, expectations for an outcome should be set high but realistic. For example, when dealing with a renowned team, pressuring players to win may produce anxiety and have negative effects. However, when opponents are a team they have beaten before, then the pressure may have positive effects. Finally, light exercise ahead of the game produces reduces tension and anxiety (handout, p. 137). Psyching up players is not an easy task for a couch. He considers the skill level of each player, age, psychological needs, position in the field and task. Psyching up less experienced players concentrates on planned maneuvers and concentration, which need high levels of arousal and may produce negative results. Emotional control improves with age. Young athletes are more susceptible to negative comment and disapproval. However, with older athletes, negative comments and disapproval is a challenge indicating that they need to step-up the game (handout, p. 138). In addition, some tasks or positions in a field and games need more motivation than others do. For example, sprinters need more psyching up than long distance runners. Arousal produces good effects with good timing. For example, some couches use films of previous matches to motivate players. Using these films on the night before a competition may raise anxiety to undesirable levels (handout, p. 138). In an attempt to increase arousal levels among player, the couch may increase voice intensity and use signals when close to athletes. Using bright indoor lighting, maintaining respectable physical contact especially with opposite sex players and using the first name of players increase arousal. Introducing the first line up to the audience before the game starts up and allowing players to warm up before the contest are some more tips in arousing players (handout, p. 140). There are some tips used by couches that reacting negatively to players instead of positively. For example, introducing new strategies ahead of the competition produces anxiety. In addition, using criticism produces anxiety instead of arousal. Some athletes perform well after criticism with an intension to disapprove the couch. However this woks only for the short-term and has negative effects in the long-term. A long list of “do not”, works negatively with athletes. The list reoccupies the mind and the athlete actually forgets what they are supposed to do. This list should be replaced with the “dos” (handout, p. 140). Both the player and the couch should set goals in any competition. Though the couch should challenge players too achieving more, goals he sets alone may be too high for the player leading to anxiety. In cases where a team loses, most couches end up blaming the officials, especially the referee. Doing this renders the players feel helpless, with their efforts going to drain, thus becoming demoralized (handout, p. 141). All these factors arouse or produce anxiety in an individual is varied with personality. Equally, there are many tips given to control anxiety all of which work differently with an individual. Thus, the player is the only person who can succeed in controlling his or her response to arousal and anxiety. This may not be obtained in a day. It requires intense self-evaluation over time and high maturity levels. The inverted U theory has been criticism challenged with some researchers claiming that the curve is not smooth with research done. Instead, the curve is an asymmetrical inverted V curve. However, this is caused by a small sample size and few levels of arousal measured. Additionally, this curve should not be symmetrical. Overexcited athletes for instance rapidly drop their performance unlike the gradual presentation of the curve (handout, p. 131). The theory is further challenged by the catastrophic theory in that, while over arousal results to declined performance, it depends on the level of cognitive anxiety. When high, chocking occurs with high physiological arousal. The theory assumes symmetrical balance between arousal and performance and disregards the effects of cognitive and physiological arousal (handout, p. 132). As discussed above, factors affecting arousal among athletes vary from personal factors, influence by the couches and situations. The inverted U curve therefore is a result of many components interacting with each other, some of which may be computable while others may not. 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