The Development of the Term Social - Essay Example

Running Head: Social Capital Social Capital Customer’s Name: Customer’s Course: Tutor’s Name: May 13, 2012 1.0 Social capital Social capital is commonly studied in relation to the contribution it makes towards the achievement of sustainable development of the community. In most cases social capital is commonly viewed in respect to two perspectives which when integrated together will offer a widely accepted definition of social capital. One of the most common definitions of social capital is the aspects of social organizations such as an organizations norms, organizational trust as well as networks that may develop the competence of the society by the facilitation of coordinated actions. Another commonly accepted definition of social capital is the rules, customs trust, as well as obligations that are entrenched in most social relations, communal structures and communal institutions planning which allows the society members to attain their individuals objectives which when combined leads to the achievement of the community objectives. Also according to the institute of economic growth social capital is termed as the networks and the shared norms, understanding and values that enable better cooperation between and among group’s members (OECD, 2001). The available literature has a greater level of agreement of what does social capital do than what it is. It is widely accepted that in essence social capital assists communally helpful collective action. For a number of years the concept has been put forth as a major unifying factor embodying multiple disciplinary views. Social capital is greatly inspired by various works such as that of James Coleman as well as Robert Putnam. The two and other famous writers in diverse fields have offered various definitions of the concept and they have also identified conceptually sound as well as practical useful bounds of social capital (Grootaert, 1997, Portes, 1998, Woolcock, 1998, Narayan, 1999, Serageldin and Grootaert, 2000, Woolcock and Narayan, 2000). 2.0 Methodologies for measuring social capital Since the development of the term social, there has been the development of various innovative ways of measuring the concept, though due to various reasons the attainment of an accurate measure is not actually possible. One of the major reasons is because due to the various definitions of the concept, the concept seems to the multidimensional has over time incorporated various levels as well as units of analysis. The other reason is the fact that though many attempts have been made to measure some properties that are basically associated with the inherently ambiguous ideas for example the organization, community as well as the network have all proved to be problematic (Putnam, 1995). The last reason is the fact that a small number of surveys have initially been carried out to measure the concept of social capital; this left the current researchers to come up with indexes form various approximated aspects. The concepts that were mainly approximated included the people trust in the government; the country’s voting trend, number of hours spent volunteering, and the citizen’s membership of some civic organizations. Thus with the above stated reasons, the aspect of measuring social capital mat at times seem difficult. With the various definition of social capital the methods used to measure social capital varies. Though there has been the development of certain measures to measure social capital. These measures are broadly grouped into three categories which include: quantitative measurements and the qualitative measurements. 2.1 Quantitative measurements This is one of the major methodologies that is used to measure social capital. In respect to this, this section will offer some of the mostly used quantitative measures. Aspects which are grouped under this category includes existing statistical data relating to social capital, survey on social capital, social capital indexes, longitudinal survey and lastly the insertion of standardize social capital module in thematic surveys. 2.1.1 Statistical data on social capital A statistical approach is mostly used when measuring social capital in the economic sector so as to present data for nationwide accounting purposes. The data generated from this approach is used to complete the data that have been obtained by the use of other methods and the different data are combined and used for analytical purposes. 2.1.2 Special Survey on social capital This approach is mainly based on the formulation of a base question that is been attempted to offer a solution. This is done by the creation of a micro data file that offers a lengthy view of the subjects in the study. To lengthen the analytical potential of this kind of approach it is commonly preferred that a large quantity of data to be collected, high response rate and the sample used should be appropriate. 2.1.3 Social Capital Indexes This approach of measuring social capital requires that data is prioritized to generate essential characteristic of the aspect to be measured. The indicators are later joined so as to come up with a scale. In essence there must be a linkage between the indicators but not necessarily statistical linkage that is the indicators that are used can be independent from one another. This approach is mostly preferred because it offers the possibility of comparative analysis in terms of time, groups as well as space. In Australia for example the studied which are often referred to in relation to the social capital indexes are the studies conducted by Onyx and Bullen (1998) and the studies were mainly created on the base of eight dimensions related to the concept of social capital. 2.1.4 Longitudinal surveys Longitudinal studies of social capital involve the investigation of the life trajectory of individuals and families. It also investigates the linear correlation of various aspects of their lives. Longitudinal studies are able to integrate multiple issues in an individual’s life path for the purpose of coming up with new public policies and implementing solutions to social problems. Longitudinal studies are used to unearth statistical relationships between certain aspects of an individual’s life and the direction his life takes. 2.1.5 Standardized social capital module in thematic surveys Thematic surveys majors on the tactical question in relation to a targeted population as well as area so as to generate data on a reasonably specific question. In respect to these measurements the social capital dimension is tackled by the inclusion of a section. Researcher who opt to use these method are faced by a challenge of coming up with question that best fits in the definition of social capital. Thus there is a need to come up with a standardized way of measuring the core dimensions of social capital. 2.2 Qualitative measurements 2.2.1. Applications Qualitative Research in Investigating Social Capital In measuring of social capital qualitative measurements are used to enrich the Quantitative data. A sub-sample of the population is selected to provide more details about the Qualitative aspects of social capital measurements. The Qualitative study comes after the quantitative measurements and selects respondents who made a specific response. Qualitative information enables researchers to better understand the causal relationship of the quantitative data. Research on issues of social capital can apply the quantitative survey to find out more on the following issues: When do people “activate their networks of relationships” What are the non-formal rules followed within the network for resource circulation The cost for links arising from their use in resource organization The barriers that are met when activating networks’ Reasons for varying network composition 2.2.2 Social capital case studies Case studies are used in Social capital research to understand the social capital issues in particular contexts or institutions. Thus, case studies are a research subject in social capital investigation rather than a methodology of investigation. This approach is mainly based on the notion that the study of previous social capital issues in various contexts can provide a deeper appreciation of various social capital phenomenons where other information sources are less illuminating. Case Studies are more beneficial in research of communal Social capital where ordinary surveys are not applicable. Case study reviews aim to answer the following questions: What are the prevalent types of collective networks in a particular society? Bonding versus bridging? Formal Partnerships versus non-formal links? Institutional arrangement? How does the network relate to groups outside the community? Do the networks exclude any groups? What interventions or activities are carried out by networks under investigation? What are the capabilities of the networks to tackle specific issues? What are the limit and potential of the networks as regards access to resources and opportunities? 2.2.3 Meta-Analysis of Social Capital Meta-Analysis is a methodology that references data results from studies with similar aspects and analyzes the studies using tools such as graphs and bar charts. In Social capital measurement, meta-analysis involves bringing together social capital investigation seeking to answer specific questions. Meta-analysis helps bridge the gap on qualitative data from collective social capital studies (Coleman, 1988). Meta-analyses combines research data from various research undertakings in the areas activities of volunteer organizations, community groups and other community based associations and examines their interactions to achieve a shared developmental vision. In the cases above the qualitative effect collective social capital cannot be measured except in specific community initiatives. Meta-analysis is used to compare and put together these measurements of specific interventions. 2.2.4 Social capital observatory By the use of observatory data and information on social capital is obtained a diverse options are considered when structuring such data and information. A well art6iculated observatory offers valuable data that is used for producing indicators. With the advent of the internet the observatory approach has been made easier. An example of a site that deals with this approach is the one that was developed by Paul Bullen who was a major contributor to the social capital research in the whole of Australia (Onyx & Bullen, 1998). The site offers wide-ranging and relevant information on social capital. 2.2.5 Demonstration projects on innovative social capital This approach involves taking into consideration social demonstration projects, pilot projects and measure the impact programs to as to make modifications before implementing them on a large-scale basis. This eliminates mistakes and thus leads to the efficiency of the programs once implemented. 2.2.6 Using the Social Capital Lens to Develop and Evaluate Projects and Programs This approach takes into consideration the direct as well as the indirect impacts of interventions projects. This approach also takes the social capital dimension pin the development and evaluation of projects and programs. This approach also takes into consideration the wider concept under which personal and collective systems function. When developing programs it is essential to consider the client on the basis of the social capital so as to provide the most suitable intervention strategies. Some evaluation tools exist and they are commonly used to gauge the impact an implementation of a project as well as a program will have on social capital (Woolcock, 2001). 3.0 How social capital is used to address illiteracy In general it is widely believed that the more social relationship that individuals is engaged in the more the social capital they will possess, the notion is also supported by Field 2003, he states that the greater the number of people an individual know the one tend to share a common outlook with those individuals thus the individual ends up been richer in terms of social capital. The reduction of illiteracy among minority groups is one of the main objectives of developing social capital among disadvantaged groups. In essence social capital can be used to solve or eradicate illiteracy among minorities in Australia. Social capital is said to have some major impacts on a person’s knowledge as well as the welfare of the poor in the society in that it tends to improve the results of the educational activities that individuals from the minorities engage in the Australian society. Social capital is a good way of solving a social issue such as the inequality in education of minorities by the use of both the micro and macro channels that may tend to have an Impact on the flow of information and data that may be useful to the individuals from minority backgrounds. Thus, social capital is seen as a way of improving the educational outcomes of minority students in Australian educational institutions and in the community. The Social capital approach was used in a pilot study in Sydney Australia to improve the literacy and health aspects of Muslim women. Muslim women face challenges in accessing health information, their proficiency in the English language is also low and they also not very knowledgeable on most issues, they are also excluded from interacting with other Australian groups. The project used pedagogical startergies to influence a group of Muslim women selected to study their improved literacy and health outcomes to enhance their social capital. The study was a collaboration between a Muslim’s Women centre, the New South Wales TAFE College and a local health service. The study recruited 12 women for the health course. The women came from diverse backgrounds with most being married. The women’s proficiency in English ranged; those women who recently migrated to Australia could only muster a few words while those who had been there longest were almost fluent. The topics for the health literacy session were the Muslin women own choice. The topics tackled in the class included stress management, exercising and health eating. However, the session introduced new aspect in health literacy aimed at building social capital. First, team teaching was introduced where the literacy educator coordinated activities with the health literacy facilitator. Secondly, the course would continue for several months. Thirdly, the educators concentrated on isolating social capital outcome and how they influence literacy and healthy behaviour. The classes also made use pedagogical strategies to encourage growth of social capital among the learner. The sessions were held in small classrooms to encourage social interactions. Secondly, the facilitator taught while sitting inside the groups and work had to be completed in groups. Thirdly, the setting encouraged non-formal behaviour including games. Finally, the learners were encouraged to improve their links with local communities by reporting on all local social locations. The classes achieved the following encouraging social capital outcomes. The women could trust others more and were able to share personal experiences like divorce experiences. Secondly, the bonds between the women improved to the extent of referring to the group as a sisterhood (Winter, 2000). They also came to appreciate and accept the cultural diversity of the group for example learning terms in each other’s languages and even taking up western clothing. Finally they conceded that the course had allowed them to improve their English proficiency and thus their access to information and other topical issues. 4.0 Conclusion With the growing interest all over the globe in measuring social capital, there is high possibility that the concept of social capital will attract a lot of attention for future researchers. As it has been observed qualitative methodologies offers reliability as well as validity to the current quantitative measurements tools. Thus when measuring social capital one ought to integrate both the quantitative methodologies and the qualitative methodologies. The Social capital approach should be widely adopted to tackle the many inequalities affecting minority groups. In the discussion above the approach was seen to have been applied successfully to improve the literacy outcomes of Muslim women in Sidney. On wider scale teaching of Health and Basic literacy using the social capital approach can help bridge the illiteracy gap between ordinary Australians and minority groups. References Coleman, J. (1988). “Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital’ American Journal of Sociology Vol. 94, S95-S120. Field, J. (2003) Social Capital, Routledge, London Grootaert, C (1997). “Social Capital: The Missing Link?” In World Bank, Expanding the Measure of Wealth: Indicators of Environmentally Sustainable Development. Washington, D.C. OECD (2001). The Wellbeing of Nations: The Role of Human and Social Capital, Education and Skills. Paris: OECD Centre for Educational Research and Innovation. Onyx, J. & Bullen, P. (1998). Measuring social capital in five communities in NSW: An analysis.” Centre for Australian community organizations and management. Working paper series, No. 41. Portes, A. (1998). “Social Capital: Its Origins and Applications in Contemporary Sociology.” Annual Review of Sociology. Vol. 24, pp.1–24. Putnam, R. (1995) 'Bowling alone: America's declining social capital', Journal of Democracy Vol 6(1), pp. 65-78. Serageldin, I. & and Grootaert, C. (2000). “Defining Social Capital: An Integrating View.” In Partha Dasgupta and Ismail Serageldin (eds.), Social Capital: A Multifaceted Perspective. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Winter, I. (2000). Towards a Theorized Understanding of Social Capital. Working Paper 21, Australian Institute of Family Studies. Woolcock, M (1998). “Social Capital and Economic Development: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis and Policy Framework.” Theory and Society vol 27 (2), pp. 151-208. Woolcock, M. & Narayan, D. (2000). “Social Capital: Implications for Development Theory, Research, and Policy.” World Bank Research Observer Vol 15 (2), pp. 225–249. Woolcock, M. (2001). 'The place of social capital in understanding social and economic outcomes', Isuma: Canadian Journal of Policy Research Vol. 2(1), pp. 1-17. Read More