Controversial Issues - to Teach or Not to Teach - Essay Example

Evaluation of Research Name Course title Instructor’s name Date Table of Contents Introduction 2 Controversial Issues, To Teach or Not To Teach 3 Importance of research outcomes 3 Analysis of the Research 4 Motivation for the Research Topic 4 Research problem 4 Theoretical approach to the research 5 Motivation literatures 6 Research methodology 6 Sample selection 7 Addressed questions of validity 8 Analysis results 9 Consistence conclusions and recommendations with the findings 9 Authentic instruction 10 Importance of article 10 Importance outcomes 11 Research problem 11 Analysis of research 11 Theoretical approach of the research 11 Research methodology 12 Sample selection 13 Addressing questions of validity 14 How the results are analyzed 15 Consistence conclusions and recommendations with the findings 15 Conclusion 16 References 17 Introduction This document evaluates the research methodologies and analysis strategies used in two research papers; Controversial issues, to teach or not to teach is a research paper by Sarah Philpot, Jeremiah Clabough, Lance McConkey, and Thomas Turner presented at the University of Tennessee, 2011 and Developing Authentic Instruction in Social Studies by Patricia Avery and Carol Freeman presented at the university of Minneapolis, 2002. Controversial Issues, To Teach or Not To Teach Controversial issues, to teach or not to teach is a research paper by Sarah Philpot, Jeremiah Clabough, Lance Mc Conkey, Thomas Turner at the University of Tennessee. This paper focuses on the issue of controversy that arises upon discussion of some topics in a classroom situation, creating concern on whether these issues need be discussed or sidelined completely from the education curriculum. In the research, controversial issues are defined as issues that polarize the classroom or on which every individual student have a different perspective. This research seeks to delineate the potential divisive nature of controversial issues and provide a framework for handling discussions in classrooms. This framework will overcome the obstacles that are caused by the teachers own biases on the controversial issues and lack of confidence that may arise if the teacher is not familiar with the issue. The approach to teaching however does not deal with the role of the issues in the curricular which may vary with the education systems. Importance of research outcomes Through this research paper, the strategies that teachers employ when including controversies in their lesson plans are elaborated. The paper further gives guidance on making decision that will meet policies in teaching controversial issues. It is clear that everyday life is full of controversy with deeper controversy existing in social sciences such as history. It is impossible to avoid in totality the teaching of controversial issues alongside the appropriate classroom instruction. The skills gained after teaching controversial issues involve critical and rational thinking and reflection of personal perspectives and contrary perspectives from other people. The students will hopefully develop the ability to make intelligent choices and demonstrate democratic values such as tolerance and participation in the political arena. Students are therefore able to question and express their concern in the comfort of the classroom which creates a deeper development of social skills such as the ability to listen to one another and dealing with difficult topics. This is important as controversy is part of the human society and the schools are secure and unbiased grounds for discussion. Knowledge of the teachers’ ideological stance will be useful to students, as a way of reinforcing confidence in the delivery of content. It is almost impossible to conceal the personal beliefs as these obviously come out in the verbal and non-verbal cues. It is imperative that the teacher makes their stand clear at the beginning of the discussion so that bias and ideological standpoints of the teacher are known. The students will only open up if the teacher has opened up in the first place. Analysis of the Research Motivation for the Research Topic Teaching of controversial issues has shown an upward trend since initial researches were done. In the early 1960 most teachers showed lack of interest and low capability in handling controversial issues in classes. Reports form McAulay indicated that only 47 percent of teachers who handle social studies were comfortable in discussing controversial issues in class. Research problem This research stems from the need to define and clarify issues on controversy in the learning process and how to handle discussions on the same without polarizing the students. The research aims at describing teachers perception of controversy and strategies used to handle controversial issues in social studies. Collaterally, the interviewees perception of research was described giving a broader and more in depth outlook of the research purpose. The overall research question was to determine the nature of controversy in classroom situations, how teachers engage students in discussions on controversial issues and finally to give a guideline on teacher conduct in discussion. Theoretical approach to the research The qualitative approach used in the research is dependent on its purpose; it seeks to gain understanding of a social standpoint on whether or not controversial issues should be taught in classrooms. The researcher aimed at describing how people think, their perceptions, how they behave as consequences of the perceptions they hold on controversial issues. According to Patton, (2002), dependency on discourse and documentation provided more understanding of the research question. Students’ interaction within the school environment is an extension of the qualitative nature of the research as the aims were to create a more harmonious interaction of students and ensure avoidance of conflict situations. Qualitative approach in the research allowed for flexibility in the manner in which the research questions were handled. The researcher allowed the participant’s to construct their own answers to a set of questions while reaffirming his point of focus by follow-up questions. These research questions probed the social structure and may result in inequality and injustices if not handled carefully. Diversity in contextual approach to the research question further reinstates the qualitative nature of approach, knowledge and perceptions are diverse and therefore the focus of the researcher was on specific people who are derived from a larger social scene (Strauss, 1987). Only social studies teachers were participants in the research with absolute discreteness ensured to avoid interferences from other subject teachers. By developing good research partnership between the researcher and participants, it was easy to develop in depth preparation and data collection for the research with either the researcher or the participants knowing where the research will lead. This results from good rapport which may have been formed outside of the research scenario. As qualitative researches are social, it is crucial that good rapport exists between the researcher and participants as this ensures trust and validity of the results (Patton, 2002). Motivation literatures Recent studies on the topic have brought to light the low attention given to controversy that arises in classrooms. Only few students consider the insignificance of discussion of controversial issues as a pedagogical approach to learning. Broad suggestion on how to teach are found in the work of Marsh and several journal articles such as Gallo, 1996, Oultol, Dillon And Grace. These give teachers guidance on the procedure of teaching controversial issues. Other reports that made significant contribution are by McAulay which was done in the early 1965 of 648 social studies teachers. MacAulay (1965) found out that more teachers felt that they would be reprimanded if controversial issues were discussed in class. This shows the need for demystification of the issues of classroom discussion of controversial issues in the early years; Later on in 1983 had a surprisingly positive improvement in the number of teachers willing and comfortable to handle controversial issues. The issue was evidently becoming less as many modern teachers showed that there was need to promote discussion of controversial issues. More recent studies and reports on the issue such as that of Byford, Lennon and Russell, their focus was on determining controversial issues deemed as important by teachers and the importance attaché to controversial issues. This survey had respondents from 67 high schools, with most teachers indicating that it was important that controversial issues be handled in class; however, constant disruption and conflict were notable and hindered the overall learning process. Research methodology There is evidence of the use of a combination of sampling, document analyses and interviewing as methods of data collection. In choosing the samples of this qualitative research, the number of samples was kept low; only six participants, two female and four male teachers were used. The depth of data collected however was high as in any other qualitative research. The six participants were chosen from a section of social studies teachers who have to deal with teaching controversial issues every day. The teachers were taken from different schools and grade levels to increase the spread of the data. The level of experience varied from newly recruited to up to five years. Interviewing was based on open ended schedule of question that was similar for all the six participants. The participants to openly construct their responses while the researcher as follow up questions. The data collection was discrete with interviewees having to choose a location of convenience to them. The transcriptions of interviews were carefully analyzed by the researcher using qualitative methodology of Bogdan and Biklen, 2007 which focuses on themes and individual perceptions of the respondents. The transcription were read and reread to search for corresponding responses with codes initially. The codes were then compared and collapsed into seven main themes. Sample selection Sampling in this research has emphasized the relevance of the research topic on the participant’s role in the education institution. Though the limited sample taken reduces the generalizability of the research results, the in-depth nature of understanding of participants with the knowledge on controversial issues certainly improves the applicability and reliance of the findings. Sampling technique employed is characterized by a self-selected participant selection. The list of teaching staff at six schools was used and participants who had most reliable information in relation to the research question; the social education teachers were selected. This exhibited very good purposive sampling as controversial issues are a component of social studies. Addressed questions of validity In consideration of measures of validity such as the representation of the research question in the chosen methodology, this research shows great validity. The objectivity of the three questions that the respondents had to answer was on point in querying the possibility of holding discussions on controversial issues. However, the researcher failed in the lack of implementation of triangulation of research questions. This would have been more accurate rather than depending on the respondents answers which may have been biased. Moreover, the direct influence of the researcher in ways in which the research obviously affected the daily occurrence of the classroom discussion may have created an unreliable response from the respondents. It was obvious that the researcher was conducting a research instead of maintaining an observer’s perspective. It is almost impossible to place an accurate measure on the success of discussion of controversial issues, let alone determine the measure of controversy in an issue. This fact has eliminated possibility of validity in any measurable data that may result of this research. The minimalistic nature of the statistical result cannot be taken to represent generalized population thereby rendering the research unreliable. In populations already polarized by social conflicts there is greater difficulty and discomfort in discussing controversial issues. This research seems to only concentrate on stable economies with harmonious societies wherein controversial issues are less polarizing and divisive. This shows the lack of consideration of the setting on which the research was conducted in order to improve the reliance of the result on a wider scale. The considerations of only school populations have further narrowed the possibility of applicability of the research in other social gatherings. Lastly, the manner in which the teacher presents the controversial issues directly affects the overall success of the discussion of the issue. Analysis results This study engages the use of analytic induction in its analysis of results. In this approach the researcher begins with a definition of the problem and continues to the possible explanations that have been resultant of the study. The cases are examined to determine the effectiveness of data collection and how well the collected data fit into the hypothesis. For instance the researcher indicates by definition of the nature of controversy discussed in class. Controversy is broadly defined as any issue that may cause different viewpoints and perspectives from students. This is examined in accordance to the data collected from teachers who define controversial issues as sensitive subjects. Individual definitions of selected teachers are analyzed for conformity to the stated hypothesis. In analysis of the need to teach controversial issues in the classroom situation, most teachers who responded to the study emphasized the need to discuss controversial issues. Consistence conclusions and recommendations with the findings This report does not give any recommendations on the necessity of study topic. However, the results strongly advocate for discussion of controversial issues for the many benefits it accords the overall intellectual development of students. With these discussions, the students will learn how to resolve conflicts without resorting to forcefulness not to mention, the defense that they will give to what they believe in. The manner in which the discussions of such controversial topics are introduced was the second question; most respondent stated that as social studies teacher it was unavoidable to engaging in discussions. It is important to consider the management techniques of the discussion as they will always tend to arise along the course of the lesson. The research indicates that the teacher should maintain neutrality and ensure complete representation of the different perspectives of the discussion. Authentic instruction Importance of article Patricia Avery and Carol Freeman in their research paper, Developing Authentic Instruction in Social Studies, elaborate the need to incorporate authentic instruction to enhance development of personal and intellectual skills. The research studies the existence of a connection between content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge. It is important as it examines the effects and effectiveness of in-service program on the authenticity of teachers’ instruction, assessments and students performance. This research is a development on the previous work done by Fred Newman at the University of Wisconsin. The outcomes of this report will enable investment in authentic instruction by teacher and students in order to achieve academic goals across all subjects. Students who experienced higher authentic instruction had higher achievement compared to student with lower authentic instruction. Efforts to reform education are persistently challenged by obstacles undermining emphasis on rigor and relevance and subsequently giving low expectation for intellectual challenge and academic excellence. The lack of student engagement in courses and demands of extensive coverage of subject matter leaves teachers without any sense of the core intellectual mission of the students’ being in school. Implementation of authentic instruction has been challenged by inadequacy of political support and funds for reports which result in loss of sustained effort and controversy in curriculum and schooling, lack of coordination of stakeholders, inequity in socio economic groups. Without comprehensive address to these issues, it is impossible to address the education reform by implementation of authentic instruction alone. Whether the policy makers and institution tackle these systematic problems is yet to be seen. Individual schools can increase student achievement across all socio economic groups with a work guided framework of authentic instruction and assessment. Importance outcomes The importance of improving instruction cannot be underestimated as many projects have resulted in little change in yield in the overall student performance. This consistent lack of change in intellectual quality reflects the poor focus of on instruction by other projects implemented. Successful application of authentic instruction appears to be successful in enhancing teachers’ instructional practices and promoting collegiality. Research problem The research describes the development of a professional program that has high interconnectivity between content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge. This is to enhance the ability of teachers’ to engage in authentic instruction and assessment so as to enhance students’ performance. It also seeks to rate the authenticity of instruction, assessment, and student performance. Analysis of research Theoretical approach of the research The research uses a qualitative research approach based on observations, interviews and study of previous research on the research question. The researcher is trying to understand human action through systemic study and analysis of the implementation of authentic study. By the use of qualitative approach the researcher seeks to understand why the students ascribe to what they hold on enhancement of performance by the different learning methods. There is evidence of extension of the research methodology beyond individual performance to the interaction of educational institutions and the environments in which learning occur. This implies that the success of authentic learning is to some extent is dependent on the social context and is shaped by the personal perspective of the researcher as an observer. The broad range of methodological strategies employed is in a bid to demonstrate trustworthiness of the research results about the phenomena. By interviewing participants, and reliance on previous researches that employed the same strategies, this research gains inductive understanding of the use of authentic instruction in educational institutions. The interviews give the personal views of the teachers and learners of the instruction methodology and the social world around them. The researcher also varied the approaches and interaction with participants to ensure that they were directly connected with the research problem. These methods include ethnography, participatory action research of teachers and students, narrative inquiry and discourse analysis. Another qualitative aspect of this research is the focus on depth as opposed to breath of the research; the researcher chose to emphasize on overlapping data of a small number of cases to the extent that data became saturated or developed thematic redundancy. The samples chosen had rich and useful resources of information on the phenomena of interest despite the insignificance of statistical importance of the result. The emerging trends further influenced data collection as the participants were selected on the basis of their ability to inform theory development. Research methodology As a qualitative research, data sources had reliance on the participation of both teacher and students. The research employed use of such methods as interviews, observation and document analysis. By observation of the participants, interference of the research process on the normal running of the learning process by spreading the research over long time was reduced. The use of teachers in choosing target classrooms and conducting the observation themselves while filing in surveys ensures that the participants do not alter their behavior because of the research. In collecting the data, the project staff observed classes of social studies teachers for the first two months, and later after a four month gap. In the assessment tasks, the researcher analyses students’ documents to determine effectiveness of the instruction method. Sample selection Selection of sample was done by first selection the target population which is largely of teachers and students involved in the implementation of authentic instruction. The teachers were stratified from 31 districts with some teachers delivering performance reports at the beginning while others delivering at the end of the research period. A good number of the participating teachers were used for observation during the research. This is evidence of triangulation as a means of ensuring that the data collected is reliable. Selection of students’ selection had a significant attrition as the number of students at the beginning was 690 and reduced down to 650 at the end of the research. The number of work submitted in the beginning was 331 while the work submitted at the end was 224. Only 94 students had submitted work at both the beginning and at the end. Attrition in the research was attributed to the high mobility of the population of the districts in which the research was conducted. The students selected were less likely to qualify to enjoy factors that ensure that they stayed in the same school longer and therefore had to keep moving, hindering consistence in the number of research participants. The selection of the sample was researcher selected and further stratified to ensure participants are given equal opportunity to participate in the research. The educational institution was first divided in to the representative teacher, who further developed smaller segments of the student’s population for collection of data. The teachers were selected from the staff rotter and asked to volunteer to the research. The teachers further subdivided the students on their own preference on concentration and chose target classes from which they would collect data. Addressing questions of validity The heavy reliance of the research on previous works increases the reliability and validity of the overall result. This research results can be generalized to external cases in which authentic instruction is applied as it has a wide scope and deeper information gathering capability. By collection of data from 31 districts the researcher maximized data collection cost effectively and produced a trustworthy result. The results are measurable and used statistical procedures in comparison of the difference in students’ performances. In measuring the results, particular attention was paid to the effects of attrition in the research. This necessitated the use of independence of statistical calculation of students work and teachers’ reports of the performances. Casual interpretation can be given to the relationship of the instruction method and student performance. This exhibits concrete internal validity of the research which is enhanced by the strict control with which the research was conducted. The teachers had to implement different instruction methodology at the beginning and later on implement authentic instruction observe the difference in performance. By the spread of the research over a long period of time and the passive role played by the researcher, internal validity is certain as there was no interference by the researcher in the progress of research development. The collectors of data are teachers who students are familiar with and will not influence improvement of performance by virtue of existence of a research. How the results are analyzed Analysis of the research findings is by coding of the students’ performance according to the assessment of authentic instruction. There are four levels, high order thinking, deep knowledge, substantive conversation and the connection of content to world beyond classroom. The performance of students in accordance to the four categories was done and from it is possible to notice the difference in performance of students. Findings are summarized into smaller tables which ease the analysis process. This method however is not advocated for as the summarized results are not exactly representative of the whole data collected (Strauss, 1987). All the same, there were obvious data trends emerging from the codes and interpretation of the findings was easy. One such trend was the increase participation in the research for students who qualified for free lunch at school, the increase in engagement of students in high order thinking with the implementation of authentic discussion. Coding is a useful and advantageous method of analysis as it helps the researcher to note new things in the data, in this way it facilitates the process of thinking on the result and making of discoveries (Strauss, 1987). Discoveries in turn influence revision of the codes and further enhance new things from the data set (Bryman, and Cramer1990). From the case study, there has emerged a new aspect of the relation of the effect of free lunch and the performance of students despite the instruction methodology chosen. Consistence conclusions and recommendations with the findings Though the research does not have any notable recommendation on the topic of study, there is consistence in the concluding statements with the findings and the overall goals of the research. The use of authentic pedagogy in the study resulted in ability of student to think more deeply and have a higher level of engagement in the conversation of topics included in social studies. There is evidence of influence teacher instruction methodology on the students’ performance as a result of the implementation of three key features used in the researcher which are, content, pedagogy and peer coaching. Conclusion The extent to which a researcher delves a research phenomenon goes a long way in determining the reliability and validity of the research findings. Different methods of conducting research can be used to create a valid report. This include establishment of the extent of applicability of outcomes which is determined by the scope of the research. Validity is also influenced by the interference of the researcher in the organizational setting of the participants; more reliable data is derivative of minimal interference as the participants will respond in the natural way without the bias created by the fact that they are subjects of a research. Collecting data in both reports involved major application of qualitative methods such as sampling interviews and use of questionnaires. Analysis of results are however different for both reports, one being inductive while the other employing statistical analysis of data and thereby proving to be more reliable. References Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theories and methods (5th ed.). Allyn and Bacon, Boston Bryman, A. and Cramer, D. (1990) Quantitative Data Analysis for Social Scientists, Routledge, London McAulay, J.D. (1965). Controversial issues in the social studies. Education (86) 27‐30 Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (3rd ed.). Sage Publications, Inc, Thousand Oaks, CA Strauss, A.L. (1987) Qualitative Analysis for Social Scientists, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York Read More