The Gradual Transformation of Computers and the Technical Aspect of the Development - Research Paper Example

Introduction If one has to choose a product that changed over time to suit the needs of customers then probably the first product that comes to mind is a computer. This product has changed so many times and in each phase purely as a result of altered consumer demand and preferences that if by some means we could turn back the clock the person who had seen the first computer would surely never have been able to even dream about modern day tablet PCs. Such extensive and radical has been the change that the concept has undergone a complete makeover from what it was in earliest avatar. The point that needs to be emphasized here that the product metamorphosed – almost from a caterpillar to a butterfly – purely as a response to consumer demands (Baily & Gordon, 1988). Though the absolute basic engineering logic remained the same invention of super potent micro chips changed the entire rulebook of computer manufacture and it acquired shapes and sizes that its earlier manufacturers could never have imagined. But unlike other products where the earlier versions are entirely discarded to make room for the latest, in case of computers the earlier versions were never completely discarded; only newer modified forms came into existence that served some other section of consumers. When one says the earlier versions were never completely discarded one never means that the earlier less efficient versions were retained. What one means is that the different types of computers are still serving their purpose though their innards have undergone a radical makeover. It would be better if talk in more concrete terms as talking in terms of pronouns and adjectives often clouds the issue rather making it clearer. What is meant by different types of computers are still efficiently serving the purpose for which they were built is while tablet PCs have become a rage, the requirement of mainframes have never diminished. This continued demand for several versions of the machine makes computer a unique case study in marketing. This product has reinvented itself over the decades to suit the newer and more specific needs of users and thus has been able to continually increase its reach and among consumers spanning several generations (Beniger, 1986). It would be worthwhile to go into greater detail about the various incarnations of computer to properly understand how flexible and amenable to market requirement this product has been. What it was like before computer was invented Though the Greek had invented numerous mathematical theorems and formulae they could do nothing about helping human beings in solving those problems. Men had to still write with their hands and count with their fingers while solving those complicated and often almost unintelligible problems. The Chinese had however invented the abacus that helped a lot in carrying out lengthy addition subtraction problems. Those who were experts in abacus could also perform complicated multiplications and simple divisions with the help of abacus. Still it was not automated by any chance as human intervention and logic was necessary at every stage to get the correct results using an abacus. The biggest drawback of non-automated mathematical calculations was not the enormous amounts of time that was necessary to carry out the calculations manually but the need for other personnel to check the correctness of the calculation done by the first person. This duplication of work was the greatest drawback of manual calculations, not the time it took to complete them manually because, with practice, mathematicians engaged in repetitive type of calculations developed uncanny abilities of completing calculations in much lesser time than others who were not that much exposed to those types of calculation. But the underlying doubt about the correctness of the results thus obtained always necessitated employment of redundant workforce that did not add any further value but only ensured that the figures arrived at by the first person is correct. Thus the need for an automated calculating machine that would not only do the calculations real fast but also do them correctly became more and more acute as trade and commerce increased in volume and diversity all across the world (McConnell, 1996). Blaise Pascal was the first person to invent a mathematical adding device that worked on a combination of gears or gear assembly that had a ten teeth differential between each gear starting from the one at the extreme left of the arrangement. Thus when these gear assembly was rotated in the proper direction it could generate correct totals. Though the accuracy element was greatly assured by this machine it required experienced personnel to operate it and if it went out of order none other Pascal had the technical expertise to repair it. The biggest drawback of this machine was it was costlier than the personnel it replaced. Thus, not very many business people were greatly enthusiastic about this machine as it could not deliver the twin objective of accuracy and lower cost of operation (Jason, François, & Zac, 2009). Charles Babbage – father of the first computer Charles Babbage had realized in early nineteenth century that most long calculations were nothing but a chain of repeated operations and thought of a machine that would be able to accurately perform certain fixed operation in a specific sequence if the sequence of operations is provided to the machine. Such a machine would not only be able to perform automatically a sequence of operations on a given set of data but also would be able to automatically print out the results in a format that would be readily intelligible to all those that used the machine. Babbage envisaged the machine, known as Difference Engine, would work on steam power and be completely automatic. By 1833 Babbage had a better idea and he started working on the Analytical Engine that had certain in-built operations and, what is most important, could work under conditional control, that is, could decide whether to carry out an operation or not depending upon whether a particular condition is fulfilled or not, thus ushering in the first element of logic in an calculating machine. Such recognition of logic was a radical departure from calculators or adding machines that could operate only when directed at each step by a human being. So, the world got the first glimpse of an automated machine that could not only operate flawlessly at very high speeds but also decide on the sequence of operations within certain logical parameters. Another absolutely new improvisation was the use of punched cards much in line with those used in Jacquard looms. Data and instructions could now be stored in these punched cards for repeated use in future. Thus if another set of data had to passed through the same set of operations and conditions the Analytical Engine could do so with the help of instructions stored in punched cards (Ellul, 1964). Herman Hollerith and his Tabulating Machine Herman Hollerith perfected the art of stacking data and instruction in punched cards and his machine was used in US Census in 1890. The most surprising bit of information in this regard is that Hollerith did not get his idea from Babbage who had already used punched cards as a medium of storing instructions and data but while observing a bus conductor punching tickets. It is probably one of the rare moments of human history when a later day innovator did not gain from work or progress that has already been achieved in a particular field. Hollerith’s tabulating Machine was a runaway success both in terms of speed and accuracy and, though costly, it still justified its price through high level of efficiency. Hollerith soon went on to establish his own firm to manufacture and market this machine. It might be of interest to know that this firm ultimately went on to become International Business Machines (IBM) (Cortada, 1993). Konrad Zuse and his Z3 Though Hollerith’s machine was performing admirably it had its own limitations as it could perform only simple mathematical calculations and was unable to perform complex engineering problems. Z3 invented by Zuse was able to cross this barrier but the greatest contribution of Zuse was not in being able to invent a machine that could solve complex engineering problems but in introducing binary system in the world of calculating machines that earlier were operating under a decimal format. The implication of conversion to binary format while discarding the decimal framework was immense as computers would now be able to recognize data and instructions stored in any type of medium that worked on an on-off cycle. A hole in a punch card might signify one while the absence of a hole in a particular column would signify zero. Similarly a vacuum tube allowing electricity to pass might signify one while when electricity is not allowed to pass it might signify zero. The possibilities literally seemed endless and the scope of vastly increased speed of operations also became a distinct reality. The introduction of binary system was definitely a watershed in the history of evolution of computers (Baddeley, 2000). Harvard Mark 1 Howard Aiken, together with other engineers of IBM, erected the first automatic digital computer that had electromagnetic relays and rotating counter wheels and could handle large numbers (as large as 23 digits) with relative ease and not only perform basic mathematical functions but also could execute logarithmic and trigonometric functions with relative ease and completely on its own without any human intervention. Though painfully slow by modern standards (it took 3 to 5 seconds for a multiplication) it was nonetheless first fully automated calculating machine. The data and instruction were fed into the machine through pre-punched paper tapes and the output was delivered either through punch cards or electric typewriter. Whatever may be its drawbacks, it was the first fully automated machine that performed a series of instructions without any form of manual assistance in between. The machine served its purpose so well that even when speedier and smarter machines were developed and readily available it was still in use till 1959 (Cortada, The Computer in the United States: From Laboratory to Market, 1930 to 1960, 1993). ENIAC John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert gave the world the next giant computer ENIAC that had the capability of making calculations and retrieving data at much faster speeds than any computer was able to do till date. The computer was a giant in every sense having 18000 vacuum tubes and occupied 18,000 square feet of floor space and engineers had a real trying to keep the machine cool as it operated at highest speeds ever achieved till then by computers. It was the first successful electronic digital computer ever to have been manufactured. Discovery of transistors, integrated circuits and microprocessors trigger quantum leap in computer technology ENIAC and its more developed version EDVAC were indeed great inventions during their times and surely were great milestones in the development of computers but one has to remember that a scientific invention can sustain its appeal only when it can be put to use commercially. The uniqueness of computer is that it continually evolved over the years to suit commercial needs and thus retained its appeal with the business community. ENIAC and EDVAC were gigantic instruments that required huge amount of capital and large space to house them. Such facilities were not available with business houses and though they were vastly interested in availing of this new technology to increase their productivity, more often than not they were not in a position to do so owing to commercial constraints. Discovery of transistors and integrated circuits came as heaven’s gift to the computer industry as smaller computers could now be built that neither required so much space nor that much electricity to operate or to keep the machine cool. Computers became faster too as electrons needed lesser distances to travel in transistors and more so in integrated chips than they had to in vacuum tubes. When Intel released its first microprocessor in 1971 the era of minicomputers was really ushered in. The first minicomputer to be available commercially was Altair 8800 that was retailed by Micro Instrumentation and Telementry Systems (MITS) at a throwaway price of $397. Thus it was indeed a radical transformation of computers as they became smaller and more affordable and more amenable to commercial use. But Altair 8800 was not user friendly at all and programming it required considerable expertise and loads of patience. Two young men, Bill Gates and Paul Allen contacted the owner of MITS and offered a BASIC compiler for programming the Altair 8800. The idea clicked and soon the entire enterprise started tasting unprecedented success as businesses across the developed world started lapping up this new superfast machine that not only could calculate but, if properly programmed, could also perform a series of repetitive tasks in some programmed sequence while exercising logical control over the entire process (Altmann, 2001). The advent of PC The advent of PC is really a story of how computer industry worked overtime to produce goods that customers needed. Intense competition among manufacturing firms and a spate of innovations charged up the personal computer market as consumers were deluged with options coming in close succession to one another at highly affordable prices. Close on the heels of introduction and success of Altair 8800, Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak unveiled Apple II that had an in-built BASIC and color graphics and a large memory by the prevailing standards at a rate as low as $1298. It, quite obviously, proved to be huge hit with consumers and Apple created its permanent niche in the world of personal computers. TRS-80 Model II manufactured by Tandy Radio Shack soon followed suit and consumers for the first time got the benefit of a disk drive that could read a floppy disk which became an instant hit as storage medium of both programs and data. IBM which was concentrating on large computers known as mainframes till now thought it was its turn to enter into personal computer market and came up with Acorn (also known as IBM PC) at a price of $1265. Apple and IBM were keen to exploit the burgeoning PC market and came up with newer models. Apple unveiled Macintosh which was the first computer in the world to have a graphical user interface and a mouse. It became so popular that the product achieved an iconic status in the industry. IBM also presented 286-AT which had such popular applications as Lotus 1-2-3 and Microsoft Word which made it an instant success among business users and consolidated the position of the company in this newly found market (Hoyle, 2006). Modern PCs have travelled a long distance from the days of first generation Macintosh and AT-286 and are extremely powerful, in fact many times more powerful than ENIAC and users now have on their table top machines that can perform an almost breathtaking array of jobs by executing extremely complex instruction at unimaginable speeds. Conclusion The gradual transformation of computers from being bulky slow machines capable of performing only the basic mathematical functions to modern day sleek laptops capable of performing an awe inspiring array of jobs is genuinely a fairy tale of modern science. But one would miss the wood for the tress if one concentrates only on the technical aspect of the development. If one views this entire episode from the perspective of marketing one would surely accept that it was a long travel for the computer from its early stages of being a cranky calculating machine invented by Blaise Pascal to the modern day powerful PCs, and it has been a continuing answer to ever increasing market demand to provide accurate, fast and affordable automated machines that would be able to flawlessly carry out predetermined routines and subroutines of instructions on a given set of data. It is true that some might raise objections at such oversimplification of ground realities and would rather attribute the evolution of computers to scientific inventions and innovations that had taken place from time to time but would the innovators and inventers have been motivated had there not been a commercial aspect to the whole effort? If there was no possibility of making a profit by fulfilling a market requirement, would the innovators and inventers been so eager to ensure that size of computers became smaller and more manageable at prices that would be affordable to small business and even households? The answer is a resounding ‘no’. No matter what might be said about the spirit of scientific enquiry, other than possibly Newton’s discovery of gravitation as the apple dropped on his lap, all other scientific inventions and innovations had a strong urge to fulfill market demand and reap profits by doing so. If the gradual evolution of computers is viewed from that perspective, it might be also termed as one long story of a successful marketing saga that became one of most resounding milestones in the history of mankind. References Altmann, E. M. (2001). Near-term memory in programming: A simulation-based analysis. International Journal of HumanComputer Studies, 54(2) , 189-210. Baddeley, A. D. (2000). The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4 , 417-423. Baily, M. N., & Gordon, R. J. (1988). The Productivity Slowdown, Measurement Issues, and the Explosion of Computer Power. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 2 , 347-420. Beniger, J. R. (1986). The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information Society. Boston: Harvard University Press. Cortada, J. W. (1993). Before the Computer: IBM, NCR, Burroughs, and Remington Rand and the Industry They Created, 1865-1956. Princeton University Press. Cortada, J. W. (1993). The Computer in the United States: From Laboratory to Market, 1930 to 1960. M.E. Sharpe. Ellul, J. (1964). The Technological Society. New York: Vintage Books. Hoyle, M. A. (2006, July 3). Computers: From the Past to the Present. Retrieved January 3, 2011, from The History of Computing Science: http://www.eingang.org/Lecture/index.html Jason, François, & Zac. (2009). Computer Chronicles: From Stone to Silicon. Retrieved January 3, 2011, from ORACLE ThinkQuest: http://library.thinkquest.org/22522/ McConnell, S. (1996). The Role of Computers in Reshaping the Work Force. Monthly Labor Review 119 . Read More