Theories for Digital Media and Cultures - Literature review Example

Alan Turing conceived digital computing in 1936 and the first automatic Computing Engine (ACE) was built in the late 1940s. Since then digital machines have continued to automate tasks once carried out by humans. Digital technologies are also designed to mimic human nature in various ways. For example, cameras stimulate human sight in robotics e.g. Mars Rover. Science fiction films, literature and brain science also open up philosophical questions about the intersection of humans and digital machines. What is Singularity? Discuss, drawing on the sources provided in the unit materials. In your answer explore the notion of thinking machines and explain briefly what Turing meant by the imitation game Name Grade Course Tutor’s Name Date: Essay plan Question deconstruction Writing an essay to answer the question about Singularity was an intensive undertaking. The first process involved deconstructing the question and brainstorming for purposes of getting ideas about the essay topic. My interest to this topic is inspired by the need to understand what possible futures for technological development will most likely be. During the deconstruction stage, I noticed that the question “what is singularity” was preceded by information that provided a historical background to the question. The question’s reference to Alan Turing’s conception of digital computing in 1936 and the first automatic Computing Engine (ACE) was built in the late 1940s. Since then digital machines specifically acted as a starting point for the essay, since I understood that I needed to understand his connection with singularity before commencing the essay writing exercise. Further, I noticed the questions reference to automation of tasks carried out by humans, and did a fare research on the issue. The question further makes references to digital technologies’ mimicry of human nature, and as I researched further into the subject, I got an understanding of how such mimicry if relevant to the singularity concept. Based on the understanding gained up to that point I was able to commence my essay writing answering the question of what singularity was. Structuring the essay This phase involved the following Introduction: A definition of singularity Body: A more detailed explanation of Singularity and the thoughts that support it Thinking machines: explanation and linking the concept to Singularity The imitation game by Turing: a brief explanation Conclusion: A summary of the essay, and most specifically, the answer to what singularity is. Drafting the essay My writing started with a draft, where I gathered all evidence needed to answer the question as comprehensively as I could. The drafting phase included constant reference to the questions for purposes of ensuring that the writing sticks to the topic. The drafting also included references to unit materials as instructed in the question. The draft started with a description of singularity, and later in the essay’s body’s section, a connection between singularity and the thinking machines concept is drawn. Towards the end of the essay, an explanation of Turing’s ‘Imitation game’ is given. The drafting stage also involved writing a conclusion section, which as is recommended, does not introduce any new information, but recaps whatever is written in the essay. Refining the draft Refining the draft involved reading the paper that I had written in the draft stage and checking it for conformance with the essay instructions that were given to guide the issue writing process. Specifically, I checked the essay’s word count and edited it to meet the 2,500 word requirement. Additionally, I edited the paper for grammar, spelling mistakes and sentence splices. I also counterchecked the fact to ensure that they were accurate. Finally, I checked the references and citations to confirm whether indeed they conformed to the Chicago referencing styles (author-date). Singularity Singularity has no specific definition in literature. However, and as indicated in the class notes by Dowd (2015, 3), the term singularity is a concept that advances the idea that in future, machines may dominate humans. The concept further suggests that in future, humans and machines may become one. Vinge (1993, 12) indicates that the singularity will mark a point during which present human intelligence models are discarded, and in their place, a new reality born from accelerated technological changes will rule. According to Eden, Steinhart, Pearce and Moor (2012, 1) singularity may refer to two different concepts. The first concept is one where artificial super-intelligent agents would emerge as a result of accelerated technology in computing. Under the foregoing concept, believers of singularity posit that there will be some kind of intelligence explosion, where the software programs installed in computer devices will react on their own without human intervention (Eden et al., 2012:2). When the intelligence explosion occurs, the narrative goes, the software programs will go through self-improvement cycles, and this may lead them to becoming more intelligent that humans. According to Eden et al. (2012, 2), the foregoing scenario is similar to what Alan Turing had predicted when he argued that at some point in time, humans should expect machines to take over the control from them. The second concept that Eden et al. (2012, 2) refer to is one where humans and machines will become a single entity as indicated in the class notes by Dowd (2015, 3). The concept indicates that the cognitive abilities that humans possess will most likely be amplified thus leading to a race whose mental and physical abilities are better than what the current humans have (Eden et al. 2012, 2). This concept suggest that post-human race will most likely conquer human limitations, and as such, could have the capacity to overcome some of the definite things that present day humans struggle with. Such include diseases, growing old, and death (Kurzweil 2005, 23). According to its advocates (e.g. Kurzweil (2005, 136), technological singularity will be disruptive to the current human modes of survival. Notably however, the advocates argue that naturally, people should expect the singularity to happen. First, they argue, human has steered and experienced technological progress in past decades. Second, technological acceleration will most likely go on for several more decades. Third, technological acceleration will most likely lead to radical transformations in not only the economies and societies, but also in the human bodies and minds. Some analysts like Kurzweil (2005, 136) is so specific in his estimates, that he argues that singularity will most likely happen in 2045 or thereabout. He argues that singularity will bring about not only a change in human history, but a revolution (Kurweil 2005, 9). According to Eden et al. (2012, 4), singularity is best understood from the two perspectives namely technological acceleration, and a break in the continuity of things (and life) as is known to humans today. Acceleration refers to growth in technology development both quantitatively and qualitatively. Eden et al. (2012, 4); Chalmers (2010, 7); and Floridi and Sanders (2004, 349) note that true to the foregoing argument, there have been notable development in intelligent problem-solving, something that is to a great part, a result of advanced technological inventions. Additionally, there are indications (at least if current rates of products and software development is anything to go by) that technologies will improve continually into the future. However, and as Eden et al. (2012, 4) notes, when viewed from a mathematical perspective, acceleration is visualised as a curve whose projections in future leads to a break in continuity or what is commonly known as discontinuity. Interestingly, discontinuity does not mark a break in the growth of technological developments; rather, in this case, it is perceived as a break in human life. Eden et al. (2012, 4) note that the break may signify a turning-point in the history of humankind. That turning-point may be characterised by among other things, failure to comprehend or even predict what the super-intelligent post-humans may do in future (Kurzweil 2005, 138). No doubt, singularity is a hard concept to decipher, all the more reason why Kurzweil (2005, 7) suggests that one should change their view of life before trying to understand the concept. Those who do not fully grasp the concept, or who see the ‘warped’ thinking invoked by the proponents of singularity have gone to an extent of dubbing it the “Rupture of nerds” as MacLeod’s (1999, 115) did. Since this paper does not seek to dismiss or verify either sides of the argument, it will delve into some of the concepts advanced by people that support singularity, with one of them being the thinking machines concept. The idea of thinking machines is highlighted in the class notes (Dowd 2015, 4) and indicates that the mimicry of specific aspects of humans by machine developers begun in the mid 20th century. On his part, Minsky (2007, 57) argues that humans are unable to develop machines that can think on their own, because they do not always appreciate their potential as powerful thinkers. Minsky (2007, 57) indicates that only appreciating the step-by-step process that thinking is can enable man to develop potent artificial intelligences in machines. Turing (1950, 436-460) discusses the concept of thinking machines extensively. He clarifies that machines he writes about are not just any machine; rather, he refers to the machines in his written work as electronic or digital computers. The question he addresses, therefore, is, are digital computers capable of thinking? Turing (1950, 437) draws a distinction between a digital computer and a human computer. However, Turing (1950, 437) does not differentiate the two through definitions; hence, one can assume that he is referring to the human brain with his human computer references. The paper by Turing (1950, 433-460) creates the impression that although machines can mimic the human mind that does not explicitly mean that that the machines are intelligent. However, he also implies that the absence of the machine’s ability to imitate should not be perceived to mean that they are incapable of intelligence. In the end, therefore, one gets the impression that Turing (1950, 460) is suggesting that machines can indeed think. Turing’s (1950, 434) however suggests that machines could only think if humans created the necessary computer programs, software and networks that would enable the machines to possess and use intelligence. Burkhardt (2012, 2, 4) supports the foregoing argument indicating that the hardware problems and software programs hinder the attainment of singularity if ever it can be attained. Thinking machines are closely related to the Artificial Intelligence (AI) concept, which argues that for machines to be intelligence, they need to do thinking-related activities just like the humans (Nilson 2010, 71). As early as the 1950s, machines were able to conducts activities such as playing games, solving puzzles and answering some relatively easy questions (Nilson 2010, 71). In subsequent years, AI researchers have discovered methods that they have used to develop machines that can learn (e.g. a robot learning to ride), talk (using a specific language), and respond to changes. Nilson (2010, 71) refers to the foregoing processes as the “mechanisation of the thought process”. The above mentioned process is probably what scientists conceptualise as possible intelligent nonhumans, who beyond a particular point of intelligence, which has not been identified yet, can self-generate beyond what humans are able to control or contain (Buchanan 2005, 53). In some games like chess, it is indicated that machines play so well; a fete that is rare among humans (Buchanan 2005, 54). Playing well however is arguably not evidence of intelligence in a machine. Rather, it is a reflection of automation. Recent developments have drawn humankind closer to the possibility of thinking machines. Buchanan (2005, 58) for example, notes that robots are more intelligent now than they were a decade ago. However, they are way less intelligent than humans in areas such as recognition (Moravec 1998, 9; Wallach & Allen 2009, 15). For example, a robot may not differentiate between a shadow and a solid object hence meaning that they still do not have the thinking and recognition abilities that could match humans. If Buchanan’s (2005, 58) observations are anything to go by, one would argue that perhaps singularity is further than some of its supporters would like to believe. However, singularity (if ever) could be as nearer as its proponents have predicted if acceleration of technology development is attained. Specifically, if scientists are able to fast-track the developing of thinking capacity among machines, and if that thinking aids the machines to regenerate their own intelligent capacities in a manner that exceeds humankind’s ability to control or contain them, then there is a possibility that singularity would be attained. Until such a thing happens, however, it appears that singularity remains an idea, which as Vinge (1993, 20) indicates, may never happen. Turing’s (1950, 433) reference to the imitation game was arguably made to mean a level at which machines could portray intelligent behaviour, which would either be similar or indistinguishable from a human’s behaviour. Turing (1950, 433) creates a scenario where two people – man and woman, and engaged in a game where an interrogator has two decide which among the two is a woman. The interrogator’s gender is rendered irrelevant. As would be expected, the interrogator is in a different room separate from the man and woman. The interrogator’s role is to ask questions to the two other people in the game, and decide who between them is a woman based on the responses. Turing (1950, 434) adds a twist to the game when he suggest that the man be replaced with a machine. Turing (1950, 442) then asks whether the digital computer, which has substituted the man in the imitation game can, with the appropriate programme and speed imitate the man satisfactorily in the imitation game, thus convincing the interrogator that it is a woman (which it is not). At a particular point in Turing’s narrative of the game, Saygin, Cikekli and Akman (2000, 467) note that the woman’s place in the game is taken by the man. SO the imitation game then pits man against machine in imitating and convincing the interrogator that they are something which they are not. The imitation game can also be perceived as a test to see whether the machine can pass itself off as human without the interrogator knowing (Saygin et al. 2000, 467). Similar sentiments are expressed by Longo (2009, 1) who argues that Turing’s imitation game was used to compare the human brain and the machine. Like noted elsewhere in this essay, Turing was very cautious of the results of what he had dubbed the imitation game. He argued that imitation between humans and machines would be more similar if the latter developed more intelligent capacity for the former. In other words, Turing was suggesting that the machines could become more intelligence or better able to engage in intelligent thought processes, only if humans developed the machine’s capacity to do so. The enhanced capacity would be reflected through better response speed and the right programme, which ideally would respond to the interrogator’s questions in a similar way like the man in the game would have. Through suggesting that humans needed to develop more intelligent thinking capacity for machines, Turing was indirectly supporting the proposition that singularity would be attained through acceleration of technology development. IN conclusion, it is worth noting that singularity is a concept whose realisation may happen, but could also fail to happen. To a great extent, it is clear that if singularity was to be attained, machines would need to think intelligently. As indicated in this essay, singularity could occur in two forms. The first form would happen artificial super-intelligent agents d emerge as a result of accelerated technology in computing. The second form of singularity is where humans and machines become a single entity thus resulting in a post-human race. It is not clear in literature whether there is a possibility of the artificial super-intelligent agents and the post-human race co-existing in the hypothesised future scenario. One thing that is evident from this essay however is that if at all singularity will ever become a reality, the development of machines that are not only automated and able to mimic human action, but able to engage in independent intelligent thought will be at the centre of it. Reference List Buchana, Bruce G. 2005. “A (Very) Brief History of Artificial Intelligence.” AI Magazine 26: 53-60. Burkhardt, Casey. “The Trajectory to the “Technological Singularity”.” Accessed May 16. http://research.caseyburkhardt.com/downloads/The%20Trajectory%20to%20the%20%27Technological%20Singularity%27.pdf Chalmers, David J. 2010. “The Singularity: A Philosophical Analysis.” Journal of Consciousness Studies 17: 6-65. Dowd, Cate. 2015. “Theories for Digital Media and Cultures: 5.1 Cyborgs, Post-Humanism and Singularity.” Class Notes. 1-8. Eden, Annon H., Steinhart, Eric, Pearce, David and Moor, James H. “Singularity Hypotheses: An Overview. Introduction to: Singularity Hypotheses: A scientific and Philosophical Assessment.” In Eden et al. (Eds.), Singularity Hypotheses – The Frontiers Collection. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. 1-13. Floridi, Luciano & Sanders, Jeff W. 2004. On Morality of Artificial Agents. Minds and Machines 14: 349-379. Kurzweil, Ray. 2005. The Singularity is Near: When Humans Transcend Biology. New York: Viking. Longo, Giuseppe. “Laplace, Turing and the “Imitation Game” Impossible Geometry: Randomness, Determinism and Programs in Turing’s Test.” 1-31. Accessed May 16. http://www.di.ens.fr/users/longo/files/CIM/turing-game.pdf MacLeod, Ken. 1999. The Cassini Division. New York: Tor. Minsky, Marvin. 2007. The emotion Machine: commonsense Thinking, Artificial Intelligence, and the Future of the Human Mind. New York: Simon &Schuster. Moravec Hans. 1998. Mind Children: The Future of Robot and Human Intelligence. Harvard: Harvard University Press. Nilson, Nils J. 2010. The Quest for Artificial Intelligence: A History of Ideas and Achievements. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Saygin, Ayse P., Cikekli, Ilyas & Akman, Varol. 2000. “Turning Test: 50 Years Later.” Mind and Machines 10:463-518. Turing, A.M 1950. “Computing Machinery and Intelligence.” Mind 49: 433-460 Vinge, Verner. 1993. The Coming Technological Singularity: How to Survive in the Post-Human Era. NASA Conference Publication 10129 Vision-21, pp.11-22 Wallach, Wendell & Allen, Colin. 2009. Moral Machines: Teaching Robots Right from Wrong. London: Oxford University Press. Read More

Towards the end of the essay, an explanation of Turing’s ‘Imitation game’ is given. The drafting stage also involved writing a conclusion section, which as is recommended, does not introduce any new information, but recaps whatever is written in the essay. Refining the draft Refining the draft involved reading the paper that I had written in the draft stage and checking it for conformance with the essay instructions that were given to guide the issue writing process. Specifically, I checked the essay’s word count and edited it to meet the 2,500 word requirement.

Additionally, I edited the paper for grammar, spelling mistakes and sentence splices. I also counterchecked the fact to ensure that they were accurate. Finally, I checked the references and citations to confirm whether indeed they conformed to the Chicago referencing styles (author-date). Singularity Singularity has no specific definition in literature. However, and as indicated in the class notes by Dowd (2015, 3), the term singularity is a concept that advances the idea that in future, machines may dominate humans.

The concept further suggests that in future, humans and machines may become one. Vinge (1993, 12) indicates that the singularity will mark a point during which present human intelligence models are discarded, and in their place, a new reality born from accelerated technological changes will rule. According to Eden, Steinhart, Pearce and Moor (2012, 1) singularity may refer to two different concepts. The first concept is one where artificial super-intelligent agents would emerge as a result of accelerated technology in computing.

Under the foregoing concept, believers of singularity posit that there will be some kind of intelligence explosion, where the software programs installed in computer devices will react on their own without human intervention (Eden et al., 2012:2). When the intelligence explosion occurs, the narrative goes, the software programs will go through self-improvement cycles, and this may lead them to becoming more intelligent that humans. According to Eden et al. (2012, 2), the foregoing scenario is similar to what Alan Turing had predicted when he argued that at some point in time, humans should expect machines to take over the control from them.

The second concept that Eden et al. (2012, 2) refer to is one where humans and machines will become a single entity as indicated in the class notes by Dowd (2015, 3). The concept indicates that the cognitive abilities that humans possess will most likely be amplified thus leading to a race whose mental and physical abilities are better than what the current humans have (Eden et al. 2012, 2). This concept suggest that post-human race will most likely conquer human limitations, and as such, could have the capacity to overcome some of the definite things that present day humans struggle with.

Such include diseases, growing old, and death (Kurzweil 2005, 23). According to its advocates (e.g. Kurzweil (2005, 136), technological singularity will be disruptive to the current human modes of survival. Notably however, the advocates argue that naturally, people should expect the singularity to happen. First, they argue, human has steered and experienced technological progress in past decades. Second, technological acceleration will most likely go on for several more decades. Third, technological acceleration will most likely lead to radical transformations in not only the economies and societies, but also in the human bodies and minds.

Some analysts like Kurzweil (2005, 136) is so specific in his estimates, that he argues that singularity will most likely happen in 2045 or thereabout. He argues that singularity will bring about not only a change in human history, but a revolution (Kurweil 2005, 9). According to Eden et al. (2012, 4), singularity is best understood from the two perspectives namely technological acceleration, and a break in the continuity of things (and life) as is known to humans today.

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