Developmental Perspectives on Behaviour - Assignment Example

Running Head: DЕVЕLОРMЕNTАL РЕRSРЕСTIVЕS ОN BЕHАVIОUR Developmental Perspectives on Behaviour Student Name: Professor Name: Submission Date: Developmental Perspectives on Behaviour Part 1 1. What was the research question addressed by the study by Anda et al.? The study by Anda et al. (2006) generally addressed the research question: How cumulative are the effects of multiple forms of abuse and its related stressors that might be expected based on its neurobiological alterations? Thus, it is a thorough study of harmful experiences in childhood as precursors to a variety of neurological and biological phenomena. 2. Outline the theoretical perspective that underpins this research study The theoretical perspective that underpins this research study is the developmental psychopathology framework which the authors briefly reviewed in the Introduction section of the study. Specifically, this section discussed on the differences in how nontraumatic and traumatic events are experienced and integrated on a neurological level. The structures of the brain and the psychophysiological effects of trauma are also explored. For example, particular structures of the brain are discussed in relation to information processing and memory. In addition to memory alterations, trauma influences a hormonal stress response in the individual. This response and related affective, behavioral, and cognitive alterations as a result of extreme stress were also reviewed. 3. Outline and critique the data collection method used by Anda et al. Anda et al. (2006) used the data from a body of research devoted to analyzing the relationship between childhood trauma and health outcomes later in life called The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. The ACE Study results from the collaboration between the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Kaiser Health Plan’s Department of Preventative Medicine. A major strength of this study was its retrospective longitudinal design. Other strengths of this study are the sample size (17,337), diverse sample (Caucasian, Hispanic/Latino, Asian/Pacific Islander, African-American, and other), and ability to control for socioeconomic status and education; thus providing additional validation to the predictive power of CSA. In contrast, the study’s longitudinal design which does not allow the assessment of CSA and adaptive functioning at a particular point in time can be seen as a shortcoming. Furthermore, the study’s reliance on self-report, poses challenge to the reliability of the data. 4. Summarise the key impacts of adverse childhood experiences on neurobiological development that have been identified in the study. To summarize the key impacts of adverse childhood experiences on neurobiological development, primarily the study by Anda et al. (2006) demonstrated that when a child is deprived of emotional contact and stable emotional attachments, the brain becomes impaired in areas responsible for the development of caring behaviors, as well as other cognitive abilities. Some ways in which the victims may be deprived of emotional attachments may include affection, touch and natural interactions by the primary caregiver. Moreover, the study by Anda et al. (2006) identified the existence of the startling relationships between seven abuse types and dysfunctional characteristics of the home environment during childhood, and a variety of outcomes in the medical and public health spectra. In general, the effects of abuse change many aspects of the child’s biological, cognitive, emotional, and social functioning. Abuse experienced during childhood is significantly associated with global impairment, leaving abused youth with developmentally delayed abilities in the areas of cognition, language, coordination, and socialization, which then have differing and fluctuating presentations. Even children who have witnessed abuse show symptoms later in life. 5. Explain how impaired neurobiological development from a range of adverse childhood experiences can increase the risk of physical and psychological problems across the lifespan The ACE studies have outlined how impaired neurobiological development from a range of adverse experiences, such as abuse, can dispose youth to being at risk for further physical and psychological problems across the lifespan. Physical Problems. The embodied experience of abuse takes on many physical attributes. In a typical state of arousal, the body is on alert and is hyper-focused on the presenting situation, often disregarding hunger, fatigue, or pain. Individuals may feel overwhelmed with fear or anger, yet within this state, their body prepares for strenuous action either in the form of fight or flight (Herman, 2007). In situations of abuse, traumatic reactions occur when the aroused state produces no result because individuals are unable to protect themselves or escape from their circumstances. Individuals subject to abuse do not control their environment; therefore, they continue to exist within this alert, hypervigilant state in order to prepare for expected danger as much as possible. Psychological Problems. Children in the constant state of arousal are observed to have increased muscle tone, a low-grade increase in temperature, an increased startle response, and sleep disturbance (Perry, 2002). The brain is particularly sensitive to the neurotransmitter and hormonal stress response (Fuh et al., 2010). If stress is daily and consistent, it can result in adaptive resilient behaviors later in life; however, if stress is unpredictable and severe, it can result in deficits. The stress response system involves the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system, and the neurotransmitter system, with the HPA axis being the primary neurological circuit responsible for stress response (Kolb & Whishaw, 2011; Perry, 2002; Anda et al., 2006; Diseth, 2005). In regards to stress response, the hypothalamus communicates with the pituitary gland through the release of corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH). Once the pituitary gland receives the CRH, the anterior portion of the pituitary gland releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ATCH). ATCH is a blood borne substance that influences the adrenal gland. When stimulated by ATCH, the adrenal gland releases cortisol. Cortisol is a stress hormone released into the circulatory system, activating the body’s cells, endocrine glands, and the brain. Cortisol loops through the HPA axis by way of its interaction with the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, which at certain levels can inhibit further release (Kolb & Whishaw, 2011). Those who have experienced extreme abuse produce lower levels of cortisol, which does not allow their sympathetic nervous system to regulate itself appropriately. Part 2 1. Choose 2 other research studies (no more than 10 years old) that investigate the impact of adverse childhood experiences on human development, and identify the research question and underpinning theoretical perspective of each study The impacts of a variety of adverse childhood experiences on human development have been researched by Becker- Weidman (2009) and Maschi et al. (2009). Becker- Weidman (2009) asked the research question: “Does frequency and severity of trauma predict adaptive functioning among adolescents with and without history of trauma as children?” while Maschi et al. (2009) asked, “To what extent does the level of trauma during childhood can increase a child’s risk of developing learning, emotional, psychological, and behavioral problems?” Both studies used the developmental psychopathology theoretical framework. 2. Outline the data collection methods used in each study, and compare these to that used in the Anda et al study The study of Maschi et al. (2009) lends credence to a descriptive study conducted by Becker- Weidman (2009). Both study of Becker- Weidman (2009) and Maschi et al. (2009) used a descriptive study utilizing high risk youths, with single diagnosis, and at single outpatient clinic setting while Anda et al. study (2006) used a retrospective longitudinal design with big and varied sample size. 3. Compare and contrast the findings of the two research papers with those of the Anda et al study The findings by Anda et al. (2006) showed that childhood traumatic experiences can lead to compromised developing brain structure and function, and stress-responsive neurobiological systems. Consequently, the impact of trauma on the developing brain increases the risk of social, emotional, and behavioral regulation (Anda et al., 2006). Interestingly, the study by Anda et al. (2006) has found that as the number of adverse experiences during childhood increase, so does an individual’s risk for a variety of significant medical ailments such as insomnia, hallucinations, memory disturbances, and other neurological problems. Furthermore, the study concluded that ACEs are common, and each ACE is highly related to other ACEs. The risk of every outcome in the affective, somatic, substance abuse, memory, sexual, and aggression related domains increased in a graded fashion as the ACE score increased (P Read More

Some ways in which the victims may be deprived of emotional attachments may include affection, touch and natural interactions by the primary caregiver. Moreover, the study by Anda et al. (2006) identified the existence of the startling relationships between seven abuse types and dysfunctional characteristics of the home environment during childhood, and a variety of outcomes in the medical and public health spectra. In general, the effects of abuse change many aspects of the child’s biological, cognitive, emotional, and social functioning.

Abuse experienced during childhood is significantly associated with global impairment, leaving abused youth with developmentally delayed abilities in the areas of cognition, language, coordination, and socialization, which then have differing and fluctuating presentations. Even children who have witnessed abuse show symptoms later in life. 5. Explain how impaired neurobiological development from a range of adverse childhood experiences can increase the risk of physical and psychological problems across the lifespan The ACE studies have outlined how impaired neurobiological development from a range of adverse experiences, such as abuse, can dispose youth to being at risk for further physical and psychological problems across the lifespan.

Physical Problems. The embodied experience of abuse takes on many physical attributes. In a typical state of arousal, the body is on alert and is hyper-focused on the presenting situation, often disregarding hunger, fatigue, or pain. Individuals may feel overwhelmed with fear or anger, yet within this state, their body prepares for strenuous action either in the form of fight or flight (Herman, 2007). In situations of abuse, traumatic reactions occur when the aroused state produces no result because individuals are unable to protect themselves or escape from their circumstances.

Individuals subject to abuse do not control their environment; therefore, they continue to exist within this alert, hypervigilant state in order to prepare for expected danger as much as possible. Psychological Problems. Children in the constant state of arousal are observed to have increased muscle tone, a low-grade increase in temperature, an increased startle response, and sleep disturbance (Perry, 2002). The brain is particularly sensitive to the neurotransmitter and hormonal stress response (Fuh et al., 2010). If stress is daily and consistent, it can result in adaptive resilient behaviors later in life; however, if stress is unpredictable and severe, it can result in deficits.

The stress response system involves the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system, and the neurotransmitter system, with the HPA axis being the primary neurological circuit responsible for stress response (Kolb & Whishaw, 2011; Perry, 2002; Anda et al., 2006; Diseth, 2005). In regards to stress response, the hypothalamus communicates with the pituitary gland through the release of corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH). Once the pituitary gland receives the CRH, the anterior portion of the pituitary gland releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ATCH).

ATCH is a blood borne substance that influences the adrenal gland. When stimulated by ATCH, the adrenal gland releases cortisol. Cortisol is a stress hormone released into the circulatory system, activating the body’s cells, endocrine glands, and the brain. Cortisol loops through the HPA axis by way of its interaction with the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, which at certain levels can inhibit further release (Kolb & Whishaw, 2011). Those who have experienced extreme abuse produce lower levels of cortisol, which does not allow their sympathetic nervous system to regulate itself appropriately.

Part 2 1. Choose 2 other research studies (no more than 10 years old) that investigate the impact of adverse childhood experiences on human development, and identify the research question and underpinning theoretical perspective of each study The impacts of a variety of adverse childhood experiences on human development have been researched by Becker- Weidman (2009) and Maschi et al. (2009).

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