The Role of Self-Affirmation - Assignment Example

1. The authors focused on the role of self-affirmation or the desperation for it in individuals’ reaction towards and perception of others (Fein & Spencer 1997, pp 1-22). Accordingly, they experimentally put forward the following hypotheses. Firstly, self-affirmation by some other means would reduce the tendency of individuals to negatively evaluate a person from a stereotyped group (Fein & Spencer 1997, p. 6). Secondly, a threat to individuals’ self-image would result in an exacerbation of prejudiced evaluation of a stereotyped person with the intention of restoring self-esteem (Fein & Spencer 1997, p. 11). Finally, negative evaluation of the member from a stereotyped group helped in restoring threatened self-image (Fein & Spencer 1997, p. 17). The hypothesis was considered as an extension of the existing theories, such as frustration-aggression theory, social identity theory and downward social-comparison theory, with some differences and similarities too. It concentrated clearly and differentially on the role of the self-concept on individuals’ perception of members, apparently from a stereotyped group and a nonstereotyped group. 2. The authors studied the participants’ evaluations of targets, whose ethnicity or sexual orientation was manipulated. These variables along with the manipulation of the self-image of participants were used for the study to draw observations. The aim was to observe separately the participants’ evaluation of the target by altering their self-image either positively or negatively. In the first study, half of the participants were self-affirmed by a modified version of a procedure used by Steele and Liu (Fein & Spencer 1997, p. 4). They were given a list of values and asked to write about the values that they found important to them. Later, both the self-affirmed and not affirmed participants were given the curriculum vitae of a candidate who was described as a candidate for an apparent job. However, half of the participants in both the groups were given a modified photograph of the candidate depicting her from a stereotyped minority group (Fein & Spencer 1997, p. 5). In short, the candidate was shown as a Jewish (a stereotyped minority) to half and an Italian (nonstereotyped minority) to the rest of the participants. In the second study, the self-image of half of the participants had been threatened by providing them with negative feedback for a purposely-created intelligence test. Later, all the participants were asked to evaluate a person whose profile was portrayed as a gay to some participants and as a straight to the remaining (Fein & Spencer 1997, p. 10). In the third study, self-image was manipulated for all the participants either positively or negatively. Thus, these variables were used to assess the participants’ ratings on the target using different scales and traits. 3. The dependent variables in study 1 meant the opinions of the participants on the candidate based on her qualifications and personality. Each participant was provided with almost the same information on the candidate that contained her photo along with qualifications, experience and extracurricular activities. However, some details, for example, her name, one social activity and photo features, were modified so as to present her as a Jewish for some and as an Italian for some participants. Participants were asked to evaluate her credentials for the suitability to that job. They were given some traits to rate her personality on a 7-point scale (Fein & Spencer 1997, p. 5). The traits included both positive and negative. Also, participants had to mention how favorably they could consider the lady for the job by choosing one of four related statements provided to them. Later, these ratings were analyzed to draw conclusions on the effect of self-affirmation on participants’ rating of the candidate. 4. Fein and Spencer (1997) used two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for their inference on the ratings. They provided p-values to show the significance of each observation, probably because lesser the p-value greater the rejection of Null hypothesis. It was observed that the manipulation of the candidate’s apparent ethnicity in the first study and sexual orientation in the second had influenced evaluations. For, in the first one, the analysis value was 4.9 indicating that she was rated more positively when she was shown as an Italian (Fein & Spencer 1997, p. 6). Moreover, it became evident that not affirmed participants were inclined towards evaluating the Jewish target more negatively, with the t (50) showing 3.7 (Fein & Spencer 1997, p. 6). Similar methods and consequent results were included in the remaining studies. All in all, two-way ANOVA along with analysis of mutual significance and interaction of values were used to draw various inferences for the cause and effect analysis of stereotyping and prejudice in relation to self-image maintenance efforts. 5. The basic objective of study 1 was to find out differences in participants’ evaluation of the target with or without self-affirmation. The results showed that the candidate’s apparent ethnicity influenced her rating, as she was rated positively when shown to be an Italian (nonstereotyped minority). Also, not affirmed participants rated more negatively than self-affirmed participants when the candidate was portrayed as a Jewish (Fein & Spencer 1997, p. 7). The ratings of the self-affirmed participants did not seem to be much effected by the target’s ethnicity than to understandable extent. Hence, it becomes evident that enhancing one’s self-integrity by alternative methods helps in preventing biased evaluation of stereotyped groups. When it is not the case, people may strive for self-image and settle for prejudiced evaluations of others like the way it was proved in study 1. For, the negative evaluation of the apparent Jewish target was remarkably high by not affirmed participants than the self-affirmed. 6. Most organizations employ diverse workforce from various ethnic and regional backgrounds, including both men and women. Hence, like many vital aspects, issues related to individuals’ psychology and, in turn, perceptions of others become inevitably important. This particular study is very important to have an idea on the extent of truth and bias in prejudiced evaluations. It is known from the study that stereotyping can be used wrongly to boost one’s self-esteem. A person’s self-integrity may be threatened by some or the other factor. And, in such case, the easy alternative for that person to restore self-image will be to derogate a socially stereotyped member, as these opportunities exist plenty at workplaces. For example, stereotyping on the basis of gender and race comes under this category. However, it is should be noted that the participants in the study tried to derogate only that member with apparent stereotyped ethnicity or sexual orientation (Fein & Spencer 1997, p. 22). It implies that the person tries to take advantage of sociocultural conditions, as this enhances self-image without any negative remarks from the surrounding system. Practically, a woman employee may be criticized as stress prone and hopeless. This derogation comes from the social stereotyping of a particular gender, and the person with threatened self-image uses this assumption as handy. The important aspect on the positive side is that if a worker is provided with alternatives for self-affirmation, like positive feedback for good work, appreciation of sincerity, the worker’s self-integrity will be protected and it prevents biased negative evaluation of prejudiced individuals at least to some extent. It is also necessary to genuinely observe the facts when considering feedbacks on a stereotyped member. 7. The article written by Robert I. Sutton and Andrew Hargadon focuses on the effectiveness of brainstorming in organizations. It was published in Administrative Science Quarterly, in 1996. The research by these authors reportedly differed from previous studies by analyzing brainstorming on a broader aspect. According to previous literature on brainstorming, face-to-face brainstorming is less effective in generating ideas from the group members compared to nominal group discussions or leaving the individual to work alone. The authors, however, questioned this statement, as they felt that objective indicators of idea generation should not be the sole deciding factor on brainstorming efficiency. They further mentioned that it was essential to know about how and why brainstorming was followed in organizations, and that focusing on the cumulative effect of brainstorming was a better approach than considering idea generation at individual level (Sutton & Hargadon 1996, p. 687). They studied the process of brainstorming in a product design firm, IDEO, over a period of two years. They collected required evidence by directly observing brainstorms, interviews and informal discussions, tracking design teams and interviewing them, materials on IDEO, and brainstorming survey (Sutton & Hargadon 1996, pp. 691-2). The authors explained that the context in which brainstorming occurred was important in drawing conclusions. For, following the principles and setting the environment that govern brainstorming is important for unbiased evaluation of process efficiency. The authors found many consequences for brainstorming than idea generation alone. They noticed that brainstorming sessions in IDEO helped in updating design solutions in the organization, providing skill variety, supporting knowledge enhancement, and impressing clients who would pay for brainstorming time (Sutton & Hargadon 1996, pp. 694-710). Brainstorming sessions at IDEO took place in pleasant environment among selected members with complementary skills and task interdependence. Hence, the observed consequences imply that proper brainstorming process helps in overall productivity both directly and indirectly. It makes individuals to share each other’s ideas on technical problems and enhances their knowledge. Also, it can extract the best out of candidates, not immediate though, by creating competition; there by, results in quality output. It remains beneficial to the particular organization in maintaining high standards and profits. Finally, strict adherence to quantitative data of generated ideas cannot justify studies on brainstorming. It needs to consider various interrelated dimensions and cumulative effects (Sutton and Hargadon 1996, pp. 710-716). 8. Most of the earlier research considered the amount of ideas generated by the participants as the sole criterion for deciding the brainstorming effectiveness. This led many researchers to conclude that face-to-face brainstorming resulted in loss of productivity compared to that of nominal groups. While Mullen, Johnson, and Salas (1991) concluded that face-to-face brainstorming was less effective, Diehl and Stroebe (1987) stated that it was difficult to comment on face-to-face brainstorming outcome (as cited in Sutton & Hargadon 1996, p. 686). Though the above researchers and many others, like Paulus, Brown, and Ortega (1996), found many effects of face-to-face brainstorming, they, however, downplayed these effects as distinct from absolute effectiveness (as cited in Sutton & Hargadon 1996, p. 687). According to Sutton and Hargadon (1996), most of the previous researchers treated brainstorming sessions as idea generating tool and concentrated accordingly on one quantitative outcome only (p. 688). Furthermore, the authors opined that earlier researches did not focus on the way brainstorming sessions were conducted. As Hackman states, eliminating context of brainstorming from the study renders consequent conclusions inappropriate (as cited in Sutton & Hargadon 1996, p. 688). The current discussion study constituted a qualitative analysis of brainstorming effectiveness (Sutton and Hargadon 1996, p. 685). It observed a product design firm that conducts brainstorming through standard principles with facilitators and participants properly trained for it. They considered brainstorming in broader perspective as a tool for enhancing individual skills, quality of product output, and technical and financial benefits to the organization. They included those consequences as part of effectiveness, which were ignored in previous research. In short, the study by Sutton and Hargadon differed from previous ones by considering the context of brainstorming as important, and by including all beneficial consequences as effective outcomes of the face-to-face brainstorming. 9. At one point, the authors stated briefly on the combined evaluation of quantity and quality. They said that quantity was preferred to quality in many of the previous studies (Sutton & Hargadon 1996, p. 686). Quantity accounts for the number of desired outcomes, whereas quality looks for the wholeness of an outcome. The subtle emphasis by the authors on the equal importance of quality and quantity indicates their complementing effects in research. Though quantity seems to be more objective oriented, it may deter the effective final inference by masking the priority for other interrelated factors. It is evident from earlier researches that mere focusing on the number of ideas produced resulted in biased conclusion on brainstorming sessions (Sutton & Hargadon 1996, p. 685). On the other hand, qualitative analysis aids in evaluating in-depth and overall evaluation of any effects for a particular process. The authors focused more on quality, and they mentioned that emotions such as positive reactions to interesting tasks were not considered as effectiveness outcomes by researchers (Sutton & Hargadon 1996, p. 701). However, it is important to consider the consensus in brainstorming literature that data on generated ideas were considered adequate for inferring effectiveness (Sutton & Hargadon 1996, p. 711). 10. Firstly, the nature of norms and workplace environment in IDEO is different from conventional organizations. As the authors put it, this product design firm, particularly at the Palo Alto site, where the study took place, is relatively small and has limited number of employees working on multiple and unrelated tasks (Sutton & Hargadon 1996, p. 711). It sticks to few rules and follows brainstorming norms nearly as per the so-called Osborn’s guidelines. Hence, the applicability of these results to other organizations depends on their institutional structure and approach towards brainstorming. Even then, brainstorming needs consideration as, if properly held, it helps in maintaining and updating organizational technical skills and creating competitive attitude in employees. Organizations may not be benefited, if they conduct brainstorming mechanically for readymade solutions to a task in hand. Long term plans with trained facilitators, keeping in mind the vast consequences, are very essential. IDEO’s brainstorming sessions may look impressive, but need not be generalized for others (Sutton & Hargadon 1996, p. 711). Companies can set the goals or, to some extent, alter the structure of brainstorming sessions to suit their exclusive needs. Maintaining the spirit rather than a mechanical approach is vital. And, employees should be encouraged to be creative and to express themselves freely in view of sustainable benefits for respective organizations. References Fein, S. & Spencer, S. J. 1997, ‘Prejudice as Self-Image Maintenance: Affirming the Self Through Derogating Others’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 73, no. 1, pp. 31-44, pdf pp. 1-30, Available at: http://download167.mediafire.com/cyy2ecettdfg/8zbhrwe2ulx/Coursework.zip. Sutton, R. I. & Hargadon, A. 1996, ‘Brainstorming Groups in Context: Effectiveness in a Product Design Firm’, Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 41, no. 4, pp. 685-718, Available at: http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0001-8392%28199612%2941%3A4%3C685 %3ABGICEI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8. Read More