Power and Office Politics - Rumor and Reality - Assignment Example

Exam Questions Student’s Name Course Tutor’s Name Date Question 1: explain why office politics is on the rise now. Structure change from manufacturing to services. Measuring output and the methods used Office politics is on the rise mainly because politics is simply how people in an organisational set up work power out practically on a daily basis (Labarre 1). Every interaction, every decision and conversation is a demonstration of power that people possess in an organisation. Such power is especially more evident because bureaucracy is slowly declining, meetings are getting reinvented, and memos are slowly being abolished as a means of communication. In other words, people are interacting on a personal level more (even in virtual organisations), and this created room for conflicting agendas, shifting powers, and environmental forces which partially inform people in the organisation (Labarre 1). Central to office politics is power. The more power one has, the more control, influence, and/or manipulation capacity he/she has (James 78). In the business environment however, power related to the access that one has to information and knowledge, access to resources, networks of people, decision-makers, and risk-taking altitude. In other words, power in an organisational setting determines one’s ability to get things done or accomplished in a specific manner. In the competitive environment that we live in, more people are seeking to capture power in order to have the flexibility and the ability to get things accomplished, which are two critical factors to individual success (Marshall 2). Structural organisational change from manufacturing to services has also played a critical role in rising politics (James 78). In the services sector more people work in the office, receive instructions from managers, and are sometimes required to compete amongst themselves either as individuals or as groups. Notably, and in an apparent departure from the industrial era where people in an organisation would be managed in order to enhance performance, managers in the service sector are required to guarantee performance by motivating employees and providing them a reason to be satisfied in their jobs (Labarre 1). The increasing departure from the manufacturing industries into the service industries mean that people within and outside the company are more prone to conflict, but at the same time, need to reach mature compromises for the sake of the organisational well-being. Notably, the organisation needs to be on the winning side by establishing and maintaining good relationships with employees and customers. Such relationships would then guarantee the organisation good results, which include low turnovers and/or increased profits. Office politics affect performance hence necessitating the need to establish approaches through which such politics can be managed effectively. As indicated above, desirable organisational outputs include low turnover rates, high numbers of customers and increased profitability. The foregoing are however unattainable if managers are unable to create an organisational environment where office politics are easily navigated. For example, managers need to establish standards through which employee’s performance can be judged. In this case, and despite the office politics, the employee’s output can be objectively gauged. If for example the marketing department is using a big budget much to the chagrin of the accounting department, an organisation must have standards to indicate whether the marketing budget is indeed put into good use. Question 2: change control and how control is exercised. Why is bureaucratic form in control now? Most organisations start from a small level, and develop gradually to become big organisations. When they start off, organisation have limited capital and human resources and as such a strict control system is used to ensure that no resource goes to waste. Wren and Bedeian refers to such control as direct control (213). In such form of control, the owner acts like an autocrat, whose laws and wishes must be followed, Fayol (cited by Wren and Bedeian 214) indicates that direct control is necessary in order to ensure that an enterprise makes optimum use of the resources it has. The direct control enables the business owner to draw a plan of action, select workers, determine their performance benchmarks, and to control and ensure that all activities are executed in a manner that enhances organisational performance. As an organisation grows bigger however, direct control because impossible to execute. In most cases, the business owner has to give some of the control to his subordinates, who take up managerial role. At this stage, the simple line form of control comes into being and the owner has to give way to specialists who oversee the efficient allocation of resources. The organisation also becomes departmentalised into functional and production departments. The production department is reliant on machines, and employees oversee the working of the machines. Notably, departmentalisation facilitates coordination especially when the organisation has multiple and complex interdependent activities. However, it breaks the unity of command. (Robbins 8) notes that the simply line form of organisational control has the propensity to create power struggles as people seek to outdo each other. Additionally, it places stress on individuals because of the power struggles, conflict and role ambiguity present therein. The bureaucratic rules kind of control is on the other hand based on the bureaucracy concept whereby, processes are standardized. Other characteristic in organisations where bureaucrats rule include formalised regulations and rules, narrow spans of control, centralised authority, functional departments that contain relevant tasks, and high–routine tasks that are achieved through skill specialisation (Robbins 8). Among the benefits of the bureaucrats rule approach is that functional departments enable organisations to attain economies of scale, and minimal duplication of equipment, personnel and other resources. The ‘bureaucratic rules’ is in control now because of a combination of factors key among them deregulation, the rise of human resource management and the decline of trade unions. The foregoing fits in well with contemporary employees who seek jobs that have participatory, inclusive and cooperative orientation, something that HRM is able to give them. HRM also seeks to win employees’ commitment towards the enterprise with the objective of helping the organisation attain its strategic objectives. Overall, the ‘bureaucrats rules’ is used in contemporary work environment because it is has characteristics which appeal to employees as well as the employers. For example it appeals to employers because it puts emphasis on low hourly rates, insecure employment, and sub-optimal employment conditions. On the other hand, it emphasises flexible work hours and offer intermittent employment thus appealing to employees who value such aspects in their work life. Question 3: Compare and discus the differences between Machiavellis and narcissists and psychopaths Machiavels are people who exhibit behaviours that are unprincipled (changes decisions easily), cynical and manipulative although not openly so (James 39). They are also suspicious of other people, and are not reciprocal. This is in addition to having a high disregard for morality. As such, they are inclined to deception and self-seeking tendencies although not openly so. They are also flexible and can easily change their strategy to fit a situation (James 39). On their part, narcissists are people with an inflated sense of superiority, dominance, entitlement and grandiosity. As James notes, their self-perception and estimation is inflated and in reality, they are not as ‘important’ as they think they are (47). They are concerned preoccupied with sending out a positive image of themselves, and are also self-seekers who are prone to taking credit even where the same should go to someone else. They are also impulsive and are more prone to falling to risky behaviour (e.g. promiscuity, gambling, and compulsive buying). On the positive side however, they have a high sense of self-esteem, are increasingly happy, and are satisfied with whatever life throws at them. To be successful, the Machiavels have to be available to listen and take in the self-aggrandising. As leaders, they perceive themselves as overly capable, although other people perceive them as arrogant. The psychopaths on the other hand are impulsive, thrill-seeking people who lack empathy. Psychopaths are considered the most malevolent of the three personality triad. They have bully-like tendencies, and are ruthless leaders who issue directives without considering what other people think of them. When faced with physical threats, psychopaths are more likely to react aggressively. This is different from narcissists who react violently while facing threats to their egos and the Machiavells who are cautious and do not usually act violently however intense the provocation is. In the work environment, the Machievells are more appealing as leaders. Their manipulative tendencies however means that they get to inspire followers with appearing to do so. The narcissists on the other hand make arrogant leaders, while psychopaths make bully-like leaders. Psychopaths are risk-takers and are at first endearing; however, their charm fades off as people start getting accustomed to them and understanding how their minds work. Psychopaths risk-taking nature means that they can either succeed at advancing an organisation’s objectives when the environment is favourable, or can threaten the well-being of their organisation by accumulating too many risks. Additionally, people with such traits (Machieavells, narcissists and psychopaths) successfully navigate their way to top management, but often do not stay at the helm of power because of their inability to get along with other people. Soon enough, people discover the manipulative nature of the machieavells; refuse to put up with the arrogant narcissist; and stand up for the bullying behaviour exhibited by the psychopaths. Additionally, all three members share a commonality in being callously manipulative in manners that benefit them (Furnham and Richards 199). As such, they adopt a protean approach to life and work, and have opportunistic and exploitative tendencies, which may not be too obvious to onlookers. -- Question 1: Differences between the period before work choices act, and work choices act and Australia fair trade work act and is work choices returning or not? Before the Work Choices Act 2006, Australian labour laws were regulated by the Workplace Relations Act (WR Act) 1994. WRA had replaced the Industrial Relations Act 1988. The WR Act 1994 continued the federal award system, which had been established in the Industrial Relations Act. It provided minimum terms and conditions for employment in Australia, and gave the Australian Industrial Relations Commission (AIRC) the mandate to: classify employees; determine work hours, rates of pay, penalty rates, redundancy pay, pay and conditions, piece tallies, rates and bonuses, and jury services. Additionally, WR Act 1994 gave AIRC the mandate to determine the dispute settling procedures for use in the workplace, the stand-down provisions, the notice of employment termination, and the various forms of leave (Farmakis-Gamboni and Prentice 6). Among the most prominent provisions in the WR Act 1994 included the allowing of workplace agreements to be used in Australia thus overriding collective agreements that were previously in use. WR Act allowed for the expanded use of enterprise bargaining agreement. It also restricted union activity and reduced matters that would be allowed in federal awards. WR Act also outlawed closed shops (Farmakis-Gamboni and Prentice 6). When the Workplace Relations Amendment (Work Choices) Act 2005 came into being, it sought to individualise employment relations by marginalising industrial tribunals and trade unions. It also diminished the scope and significance of the arbitration system that was in use during the WR Act 1994. The most significant reforms under Work Choices include: employer were given greater flexibility in determining the conditions of employment. Work Choices specifically indicated that statutory minimum conditions would replace awards in workplace agreements. The Act also reduced the role that AIRC would play in the determination of employment conditions and in resolving industrial disputes. Further, Work Choices made it more difficult for labour unions to organise industrial action or enter workplaces. It also reduced employers’ exposure to unfair dismissal-related claims. Notably, the Work Choices Act moved the country towards a single, nation-wide form of regulation by expanding the federal government system to cover all financial, foreign and trading corporations. The Act also precludes employers in the aforementioned corporations from specific State employment laws, agreements or awards (Stewart and Priest 4-5). The Fair Trade Act 2009 (administered by Fair Work Australia) relaxed restrictions on Unions and as a result, they now can negotiate pay for their affiliated employees. Additionally, Fair Trade Act enhanced employees on fixed-term contracts access to unfair dismissal claims. Overall, Fair Work Act brought an end to individual workplace agreements, it established protections for unfair dismissal for all employees, brought forth good-faith bargaining, and returned an independent umpire to dispute resolutions. It also transferred workplace coverage from States to the Commonwealth (except for Western Australia). The possibility of Work Choices making a comeback cannot be ascertained. However, it is important to note that employers benefited from the same and could therefore lobby government and law makers to re-introduce some of the Work Choices provisions that favoured them. With the Liberal-National Coalition that put Work Choices in place now back in power, there is also a strong possibility that they would revert back to Work Choices (Australian Council of Trade Unions 6-9). Question 2: Structure follows strategy, strategic level of organisations; are strategic management and strategic human resource management linked? Why HRM strategies follow management strategy Simply put, the structure of an organisation has to fit within the short-term and long-term goals of the same organisation, which are contained in its strategy. Such strategies are design to enhance growth and profitability in organisations, and as such, the structures play a supportive role in ensuring that the growth and profitability targets are met. As a company grows, it also adjusts its structures to match its new-found capacity. For example, it can venture into new markets and establish office structures therein. Complex strategies must be accompanied by complex structures in order to successfully achieve set goals and objectives. The strategic level of organisations includes the corporate level, the business unit level and the departmental or functional level. The corporate level defines corporate responsibilities and the localisation of corporation’s competition, manages business activities and relationships, and decides how to govern business units. The business unit level deals with: positioning the business in relation to competitors; anticipates changes in the market and makes accommodations for the same by adjusting strategy; and influences competition through enacting strategic actions. The departmental or functional level handles the value chain and process and consists of the human resource, research & development, operations, finances and marketing department (Quick MBA n.pag.). Strategic management and strategic human resource management are linked because the latter is part of the former. In other words, strategic HRM must be part of the larger strategic management for it to be relevant. Since strategic management seeks to help an organisation attain set goals and objectives, SHRM must play a part in helping the organisation meet the same. The two are also linked through ownership, empowerment, and involvement. In ownership strategic HRM spends time understanding strategic management approach in a company. They also identify the link between human resources and operation. In empowerment, managers align their HR operations with strategic management thought. Finally, involvement involves conducting HR activities in line with the bigger strategic management thought. Strategic management is the managerial decision and actions that an organisation adopts for purposes of determining its long-term performance. On the other hand, strategic HRM links human assets to the organisation’s strategic needs (Bratton and Gold 12) based on the foregoing, it is clear that is a critical component of strategic management since the human resource affects the long-term performance of the firm. HRM strategies follow management strategy because the latter contributes to performance; and performance is covered by management strategy. Additionally, Price indicates that HRM is tailored to demands of the business strategy (236). In other words, HRM has to act within the provisions of the business strategy in order to be relevant to the organisation’s goals and objectives. In most organisations, human resource activities are designed and planned to enable the organisation to obtain it goals. The organisational goals on the other hand are always the focus of management strategy. It has also been argued that HR activities are systematically designed and linked to the goals and objectives of the company (Price 236). The foregoing perspectives of HR imply that it is not a reactive management approach; rather, it is proactive management function that creates and shapes an organisation’s short term and long term goals hence affecting its business strategy. Question 3: discuss the four approaches in which job can be designed. Indicate why the mechanist approach has been used in the sweat shop case study The mechanist approach of job design is based on the belief that work can be simplified if based in a mechanical-like manner to involve specific tasks and repetitive procedures and processes. Work training is done in order to enhance productivity, reduce job-related errors and reduce mental challenges and stress that workers are exposed to in the work place (Wren and Bedeian 18). The mechanist approach has its basis in industrial engineering and works on the concepts of skill simplification, job specialisation and repetition. It calls for simple job designs, which new employees can learn to perform quickly and without attracting much training-related costs (Wren and Bedeian 18). The motivational approach on the other hand focuses on job characteristics that have an impact on the motivational potential and psychological meaning to workers (Wren and Bedeian 19). Based on the foregoing, the motivational approach is intent on such factors as job enrichment and enlargement, and the design of jobs that address different socio-technical systems (Wren and Bedeian 19). The motivational approach is based on the concept that work outcomes (e.g. motivation, quality of work, job satisfaction, turnover and absenteeism) are a result of how jobs are designed (Wren and Bedeian 20). On its part, biological approach is primarily based on the interface between workers’ physiological state (i.e. the ability or lack thereof of the physical strength and flexibility to perform a specific job) (Wren and Bedeian 21). The biological approach therefore seeks to design jobs in a manner that makes physical work easier hence reducing the physical strain that workers undergo while performing tasks. The main focus for the biological approach is minimal health complaints in terms of pains, aches, and/or physical fatigue (Wren and Bedeian 21). The final approach – the perceptual-motor approach- is based on people’s mental abilities and limitations. This approach therefore seeks to design jobs that are well within the workers’ mental abilities (Wren and Bedeian 22). For example, some jobs are designed with reduced information processing requirements in order to enhance the employees’ understanding of the same. The perceptual-motor job design approach aims at improving the reliability and safety of jobs (Wren and Bedeian 22). In the sweatshop case study, (Four Corners n.pag.), the mechanist approach has been used because the focus is on producing as many items as possible by each worker. Additionally, such products would have to be cheap and free from error. As such, the mechanistic approach is the most suitable where high quality garments need to be produced in high quantities and minimal cost. In a country (Bangladeshi) with cheap available labour, low literacy rates, and which has established itself as a cheap source of manufactured clothes and apparel, it is logical that companies designed jobs in a mechanistic approach. By so doing, the companies are able to keep the costs of production down, while enhancing productivity. Additionally, they simply the work process and procedures hence reducing the complexities and stress that would otherwise be present within the jobs. The dissatisfaction that is evident among workers in the case study is arguably some of the negative aspects of the mechanistic job design approach. This is because the approach does not consider the mental capacity of the workers in relation to the tasks they are required to accomplish. Question 4: The Morally Decent Human Resource Manager The morally decent human resource manager is defined as one who understands the need to meet the human needs of employees; one who employs knowledge to meet employee needs; and one who upholds professionalism, uphold applicable rules and regulations and does things that are ethically right even where no laws and/or regulations exists (Pinnington, Macklim and Campbell 153). In the section below, this report offers an insight into some of the people and concepts that have shaped the understanding of the morally decent human resource manager. Laurence Kohlberg is famous for his moral development theory, in which he argued that people have the capacity to progress in their moral reasoning. Kohlberg argued that there were six steps in which a person can develop their moral reasoning and identified them as: obedience and punishment – people obey rules in order to avoid punishment; individualism, exchange and instrumentalism – self interest shapes behaviour; good boy/good girl – a person lives up to moral expectations; law and order – a person considers the larger society when making moral judgements, with special focuses on the maintenance of law and order; social contract – a person account for the differing beliefs, values and opinions; principled conscience – based on universally applicable abstract reasoning and ethical principles. In the latter stage, a person follows his/her internal notion of justice even where it contradicts existing rules or laws. Environmentally-conscious HR manager is considerate about sustainability and corporate social responsibility although the latter is usually the responsibility of the larger management function. Jackson, Ones and Dilchert (43) indicate that the HR-conscious HR manager will encourage employees to abide by behavioural guidelines and codes of conduct that uphold good environment practices. Corporate sustainability is described as a business approach, which has long-term effects on employees and consumers through the creation of greening strategies meant to conserve the natural environment. Corporate sustainability considers each dimension (i.e. social, economic, and cultural environments) in the business operations, and also formulates strategies that promote longevity in the organisation through transparent HR practices and right approach to employee development. Overall, corporate sustainability is used in reference to environmental and social considerations of a business. HRM and environmental initiatives are connected in that HRM can enhance environmental awareness and the willingness of employees to engage in environmental initiatives through proper environmental training. Notably, it is important for organisation to integrate environmental initiatives in HR processes because such integration creates an organisational culture where environment-related matters are considered essential. Overall, it would appear that an morally decent human resource manager is one who values his organisations (and its aims and objectives) as opposed to self-interest; one who considers the well-being of the employees (by balancing it with the welfare of the employing organisation); and one who upholds justice and the welfare of all people regardless of their differences. Additionally, the morally decent human resource manager is one who considers the important role that nature plays in the welfare of human beings, hence encouraging employees (through training, or through policies and procedures) to adopt environment-friendly practices. Question 5: Lauren Kohlberg argues that morality develops in seven stages Introduction Lauren Kohberg (1927-1987) was a theorist who developed a controversial but widely studied moral development model. This essay will identify and discuss the seven stages proposed by Kohberg. Research and discussion The first stage proposed by Kohberg has an obedient, but punishment avoiding orientation. Here the theorists proposed that people are concerned about self-preservations and as such, they behave in a manner that does not cause anger to those who have the ability to punish them. The second stage has an orientation that seeks to obtain benefits and rewards for self. The dealings of the person in stage two are inspired by self-interest, and they cooperate with others out of necessity and/or through bargains. The third stage has an orientation that conforms to the social expectations for the purpose of gaining approval. Concerns for people in the third stage of moral development include inspiring empathy for the people close to them, and getting the same people to like them and approve their behaviours. Notably however, the approval-seeking behaviour is inspired by a need to have a better self-image. A person at this stage however values shared commitments over narrow self-interest. The fourth stage has an orientation that seeks to protect law and order in addition to maintaining prevailing social systems. People in the fourth stage of moral development make special efforts to act according to set laid down roles, roles, standards, and duties. People in this stage of moral development seek to serve the needs of the larger organisation, with the aim of helping them attain their goals. The fifth stage of moral development has an orientation that seeks to promote the justice and welfare if the larger community. In this stage, a person becomes more concerned about the greater good. This is in addition to being concerned about the institutional needs of his/her organisation. At this stage, a person also becomes alert about human rights and the principles of justice. The sixth stage of moral development has an orientation that defends the right to justice and welfare for all people. In this stage, a person perceive others as valuable human beings who have rights to justice and welfare, not just because of their uniqueness (or lack thereof), but because they deserve the same. Every decision that a person in this stage of moral development makes passes through self-scrutiny first in order to establish whether justice and welfare of all individuals have been upheld. The seventh and final stage of moral development has an orientation that respects the universe in its entirety with the notion that oneness goes beyond humanity. It is at this final stage that a person seeks to uphold the integrity of the environment based on their realisation that humans and the environment are co-dependent (Linstead, Fulop and Lilley 338). Conclusion The seven stages of moral development as proposed by Lauren Kohberg make theoretical sense; practically however, they do not seem to be coherent especially considering that a person does not have to go all seven processes. Recommendations Lauren Kohberg should have considered that moral development is not progressive Lauren Kohberg should have done more research on issues (e.g. for purposes of finding out if one can have the orientation indicated in stage seven without having gone all stages). Modern scholars should retest Lauren Kohberg model, make modifications to it, or develop alternative theories Finally, modern organisations should strive to develop their employees morally without assuming that they will progressively develop their own moral potential. 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