Human Resource Development in Australian, Japanese, and Taiwan Organizations - Literature review Example

Institution : xxxxxxxxxxx Title : xxxxxxxxxxx Tutor : xxxxxxxxxxx Course : xxxxxxxxxxx @2015 Introduction According to Nelson (2007), the world has continuously experienced a considerable and tremendous increase in the number of Multinational Corporations (MNCs) over the past decade. Subsequently, most of the global organizations have sprouted by undertaking different strategies in ensuring adequate human resource development. The rapid increase in the number of MNCs from developed economies has continually prompted a greater interest and urgency in creating a better understanding of how such organizations have undertaken Human resource development issues. It is imperative to understand how different conceptual frameworks of global Human Resource development strategies and practices in MNCs from developed economies across their subsidiaries. Rothwell, Prescott and Taylor (2008) articulate that the human resource has a close relationship with the leadership in any organization. Moreover, Human resource is a department of the company charged with the responsibility of finding, recruiting, screening and training job recruits as well as overseeing employee-benefit plans. However, the two have different but diligently related definitions. This report offers a detailed comparison between Australia, Japan, and Taiwan with an in-depth analysis regarding how various organizations have undertaken human resource development over the past ten years. Additionally, the report presents an assessment of organizational Human resource development in the three countries with adequate consideration of constraints. Some of the human resource challenges considered in the analysis includes the global financial crisis and business slowdowns. Human Resource Development in Australian Organizations Limited longitudinal studies and research have minimal documentation of literature review about the evolution of HRD practices in different organizations based in Australian. Actually, most of the Human Resource Development practitioners have limited access to data concerning trends regarding Australian-based organizations. However, it is important to utilize the little available data and analyze, outline, and comment on HRD pattern from the mid-1990s to the present day. A variety of stakeholders including Australia Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) play an integral role in directing work-life related research in Australia. ACTU initiated programs supporting work-life balance including ACTU Work and Family Campaign. Maekawa (2010) says that similar to the United States and European Union, increased interest in work-life emerged from changing workforce dynamics in Australia. Such dynamics included strategies such tremendous increase in female labor participation. There are seven different themes identifiable when reviewing work-life research in Australia. They include organizations and provision of work life, the work structure, occupation and industry, government investment, psychological health, family experience, and gender. According to Powell, Rocco and Roth (2014), barriers and constraints that inhibited human resource development in Australian organizations are vast and diverse. They included weak organizational cultures that rewarded employees reflective of the traditional ideal worker, work environments that were hostile to non-work commitments and inadequate managerial support. Additionally, managerial recruitment of those with similar characteristics and insufficient information regarding the existence and usability of work-life initiatives hindered human resource development proliferation. Skinner, Hutchinson and Pocock (2012) chronicle that data from Australian Work and Life Index 2010 indicated that 67 percent of employees reported satisfaction with their work-life balance. Consequently, 25 per cent of the workers believed that work inhibited their capability to take part in non-work activities. However, work-life initiatives enhance one's sense of balance and are frequently used for employee attraction and retention. Organizations seeking market competitiveness were always encouraged to create work-life practices that fulfill needs of a diverse workforce. Such demands included identifying and implementing effective recruitment and retention practices. According to Powell, Rocco and Roth (2014, p. 555), employees from over 1, 500 Australian Organizations had different views. They identified an awareness of work-life initiatives such as part-time work, flex-time, working from home and job-sharing. For instance, telework has had a positive impact on most of the business organizations in Australia. The positive effects include decreased costs of production and increased productivity as well as improving the work-life balance. Australia remained highly regulated economy until 1980s. It experienced transformation exacerbated by HRD by the beginning of the twenty-first century. Australia evolved into one of the most deregulated through the use of the centrally planned policies. Additionally, a significant turning point in the enhancement of HRD and training came in 1987. The improvement was a result of the Australian Tripartite Mission reporting on trade skills in Europe (Coryn, Fijnaut & Littler, 2008). The policy and funding climate of the late 1980s privileged vocational training. Training Reform Agenda began immediately with refocusing on macroeconomic reform seen as the strategy to promote competitiveness and increase productivity. In 1989, Australia introduced the mandate for competence-based training and continues today as the imperative for all accredited training. Additionally, those associated with training were to be minimally qualified with a certificate in workplace training and assessment. Individuals had renewed focus on skill enhancement as managers made significant changes to the national training system to enhance competitiveness and responsiveness to the industrial demands. The changes also targeted to stimulate employers investment in HRD. Powell, Rocco and Roth (2014) claimed that the Australian training and development was historically fragmented and narrowly focused on occupational skills supported by waves of immigration and staff poaching. The 1980s reforms in collaboration with the globalization led to the need for organizations to concentrate more on the development and utilization of internal labor resources. The reform agenda in conjunction with the 2007 economic crisis shifted power away from the training institutions towards the industry. Two relevant consequences have been greater pressure on manufacturers to provide relevant, contextualized, job-specific learning opportunities and workplace reclamation as an authentic site for learning. Skinner, Hutchinson and Pocock (2012) argue that the greatest interest to establish how those involved with HRD prepared. Besides, they had an interest in knowing their willing and their capability in meeting the enhanced commitment in the Australian economy. However, the two fundamental shifts signified the significant change in the nature of HRD in Australia over the past decade. Currently, the multiple the various strands of HRD are constantly intertwined in one developmental perspective (Poell, Rocco and Roth, 2014, p. 557). Because of the relative invisibility and varying emphases leading to the fragmentation mentioned above, HRD in Australia is difficult to map. Nevertheless, the attributes discussed above can be best illustrated by examining how researchers and modern scholars depict HRD in research. The depiction should, however, show organization and the place as well as the content taught. Human Resource Development in Japanese Organizations According to Uemura (2008), the Japanese government decides to train its adult citizens in academic, technical, administrative and industrial science. Additionally, historical analysis of HRD in Japan reveals that the government sent out some 3500 citizens abroad between 1865 and 1940 for similar proposed. Japan is one of the developed countries with an attractive encounter about Human Resource Development in its organizations. A Historical Analysis of HRD in Japan dates back before and after the two horrifying experiences of world war. The late 1800s and 1900s saw a growing blue and white color jobs in Japan. For instance, the industrial growth necessitated the development of strategies to retain employees within the Japanese organizations. The primary objective of HRD was creating a disciplined workforce (Xie & Huang, 2010). However, the economic downturn and the 2007 crisis combined with a state of semi-wars and growing emphasis on duty to the emperor led to the development of two unique aspects of Japanese HRD. The two unique attributes included lifelong employment and seniority or age-based pay. Japan had few human resources with managerial experience at the end of the Second World War. The government introduced Training within Industries and the Management Training Program (MTP) to fill the labor force gap. MTP later on evolved into a typical National training platform for mid-level managers and contributed to the establishment of certain unique aspects of HRD in Japan (JTA, 2008). Consequently, MTP, in particular, resulted in the development of clear paths for information sharing within the Japanese Organizations. The Japanese economic tremendous increase attracted global attention to the national management and HRD practices in 1970s and 1980s. Different scholars noted some characteristics. They included the establishment of cooperation encouraging culture, the devotion of extensive time to training, the creation of lifelong employment, uniformly high educational levels of employment. Lastly, there was training in how to communicate and share information as well as teaching fellow workers. Xie & Huang (2010) assert that laying overemphasis on academic skills rather than work specific skills in the recruitment process necessitated extensive orientation and on job training programs. New recruits trained with senior employees. The activities focused on consensus-based decision making and team processes. However, socialization out of the workplace facilitated human relations. Formal off-the-job training (Off-JT) and improved On Job Training (OJT) as well as job rotational system encouraged the proliferation of Human Resources Development. Acquisition of such relevant skills allowed employees to act when faced with challenges and adapt quickly to the new job requirements. Moreover, they allowed employers to reposition rather than lay off employees over the decline in one division. Nonaka et al. (2011) utilized knowledge creation to describe the process that led to such types of skills. Nevertheless, knowledge creation comprised of three essential elements. They included externalization, socialization, and combination and internalization process. The recent decade, referred to as HRD in post-bubble Japan began from 1990 to 2010. However, economic stagnation took place in the late 1980s through the 1990s and into the first decade of the twenty-first century. The changes shifted organizational cultures from lifetime employment and seniority or the age-based pay to long-term employment and performance-based practices. Scholars emphasized the need for HRD to be more strategic and integrate evaluative practices, career development, and performance-based incentives. Human Resource Development in Taiwan Organization Werner and Desimone (2012) argue that Taiwan provides an appropriate example of a small but economically developed market. The vocational training established in Taiwan after the year 1975 demonstrated how the Taiwanese government integrated HRD with its national economic development policy. The skilled laborers supply was too crucial for the development and proliferation of HRD in Taiwan. The Special Techniques and the Vocational Training Committee began the Vocational Training Five-Year Plan in 1977. By the late 1970s, Taiwan economic tremendous increase received regional, national and global attention. According Werner and Desimone (2012), the final stage in the Taiwan economic developmental milestone saw the country employ a nearly fully unskilled labor force. Attributes such as rising wages, and some high schools and college graduates that require additional training characterized the national HRD framework. The Taiwan government decided to establish the Employment and Vocational Training Administration (EVTA) in 1981. The main reason for making this decision was to maintain full employment while fully utilizing the human resource in production. Maintaining full employment programs was regularly regarded as one of the ways of ensuring enhancement and proliferation of Humana Resource Development. Furthermore the new newly established EVTA provided a variety of training programs for ensuring sustainability in employment. Some of the programs offered include pre-employment training for newly recruited employees, upgrading training in service and the existing employees and cooperative training. EVTA also ensured the provision of second-expertise and job transfer training. For instance, it was through the efforts undertaken by EVTA that the Taiwanese government passed the Vocational Training Act in 1983. Therefore, EVTA played a vital role in promoting enterprise training in Taiwan as well as the proliferation and improvement in Human Resource Development. The current increase in Taiwan HRD is constantly referred as the business training in Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs). It’s hard to mount a discussion for the last consecutive ten years as the changes best occurred in a period of two decades beginning from 1990 to 2010. In the late 1980s, the concept of enterprise training became increasingly acceptable in the Taiwan Market economy. However, Chu et al. (2012) reported the different contrast. Although most enterprises in Taiwan had proposals for education and training, the quality of training, and the actual number of enterprise organizations applying, human resource planning was unsatisfactory. Chu et al. (2012) asserts that during that period, a large corporation in Taiwan carried out HRD activities. The activities included in-house training, joint training, outsourced, and appointing employees for advanced education. SMEs, however, were not able to invest adequately in HRD. There were some reasons that led to the limited proliferation and insufficient HRD improvements. Some of the reasons included an extensive misunderstanding of the nature of employee training, inadequate support from management as well as the National Taiwan government. Additionally, overemphasis on current and short-term profits, emphasis on the quality rather than quantity of training were considerable factors. Also, struggling with the basic framework for HRD accounted for the discouraging practice (Kuo, 2012). Through the statute for the development of SMEs in 1991, the Taiwanese government set forth a clear vision and list of objectives to guide and lead the development and enhancement of SMEs. The Small and Medium Enterprise Administration (SMEA), established in the same year, created several projects designed specifically to enhance SMEs’ competitive advantages. The management used ten individual guidance systems to strengthen SMEs, assist SMEs in individual or joint research. Additionally, (MOEA, 2009) acknowledged the new approach aimed at helping foster the development of new products and technologies as well ensuring the provision of SMEs with technical assistance through immediate solution centers. Besides to the individual guidance systems, the SMEA established a variety of channels through that it used to provide education and training. A good example is the Research, and Training Centers of SMEs were established to use HRD in SMEs as means of upgrading the quality of services and enhancing the nationwide competitive nature of SMEs. The SMEs training centers also play a significant role in ensuring adequate coordination between public and private training organizations contracted by the SMEA. The primary aim of such approaches is to provide seminars and formations for utilizing limited resources more efficiently. To meet long-term objectives, Centers not only conduct research related to management of SMEs but also accumulate and disseminate the results of enterprise training in Taiwan. Despite a dramatic increase in unemployment, the demand for skilled workers in the 1990s was greater than the number of qualified workers available (CEPD, 2007). The diverse need and problems of a large population and workforce became Taiwan’s primary challenge. Taiwan had built a solid foundation for its labor force. However, with the shift to knowledge –based economy, skilled human resources became a critical part of Taiwan maintaining its economic success. The focus on vocational training throughout each historical period in the development of HRD in Taiwan is also a characteristic particular to the Taiwanese context. Although there is a need for a re-evaluation targeting to meet demands for more skilled labor, there is little doubt that the firm focus on vocational training has contributed to the Taiwan’s economic success. Comparison between Australia, Japan and Taiwan As discussed earlier, Australia remained in a highly regulated economy since 1980s with transformation into the most deregulated economy by the use of centrally planned policies. It is, therefore, difficult to mount a detailed comparison to that of Taiwan and Japan. Similarities Both Japan and Taiwan have successfully implemented HRD policy on a national scale. However, nation building via HRD was and early goal for both society including Australia. The recovery after the Second World War provided both Japan and Taiwan with unique opportunities for economic growth. It is clear that HRD played a significant role in the tremendous economic improvements of both nations (Harzing & Pinnington, 2011). Australia was still wallowing in problems of national policy infringement. Moreover, the proliferation of the economic growth made it possible for Taiwan and Japan to engage in HRD outside their borders. Programs such as the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and Taiwan’s International Cooperation and Development Fund (ICDF) strengthened the engagement. Currently, both countries are experiencing changes in labor conditions and increase in under-employed human resources. Consequently, Japan and Taiwan have set goals to become life-long learning societies. They need flexibility and new types of HRD to meet their challenges in the run to achieve national set economic goals. Attention to individual needs is one area where both nations need to reconsider their approach to HRD. Taiwan continues to place emphasis on assisting citizens find employment commensurate with their talents. However neither it, Australia nor Japan places great importance on individual satisfaction in HRD. Career development is one area where such deficient will be relevant to meet. Differences One difference between HRD in Japan and Taiwan is conceptual. Although both nations view HRD as work-based learning for adults, HRD in Japan currently includes undergraduate and graduate education. The difference is particularly true regarding the so-called global HRD. In 2012, funding for programs to help college students develop international competencies exceeded 116 million US Dollars (MEXT, 2012). The second difference is the importance of the relationship between vocational education and economic policy. Parallel planning for economic growth and HRD is more prominent in Taiwan than Japan. Additionally, Taiwan practices HRD among employed adults with a minimal focus on the aged, the disadvantaged and handicapped. Japan economy does not limit HRD to working adults. It includes undergraduate and graduate students. Japan HRD also includes disabled adults, those changing careers and new graduates. Conclusion Adjusting training categories provided by the Public Vocational Training Centers is essential to meet the increasing demands for more skilled workers in the three developed economies. Moreover, enterprises need to fill their particular training requirements. The Taiwan, Japanese, and the Australian government need to take an integral and active role in advising enterprises about On the Job Training for the employees. Additionally, the developed worlds should play a significant role to ensure that they address gender parties existing in their economies. Developed nations should balance the number of women employees particularly in the high company and board ranks to ensure equity and gender equality. The three developed countries need to establish a regional Human Resource Development promotion council composed of representatives from business, industries, companies, labor unions, educational institutions and the local government. The board will help foster, increase, enhance and improve the process of Human Resource Development in Taiwan economy. Finally, steering Taiwan towards achieving its goals of becoming a learning society, ought to become an important goal of the HRD. The Japanese and the Australian economy have no otherwise but to also aim to improve their HRD by deploying more promotional activities such as the establishment of more training and educational centers. 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