How Assumptions in Management Affect Manager's Learning - Literature review Example

HОW АSSUMРTIОNS IN MАNАGЕMЕNT LITЕRАTURЕ АFFЕСT MАNАGЕR'S LЕАRNING by Student’s Name       Code+ Course Name Professor’s Name University Name City Date In their role as organizational leaders, managers do make a lot of assumptions regarding their employees, workers, competitors and other factors. Most of the assumptions they make stem from their experiences as managers as well as from the different management theories they came across when they were still learners. Management scholars do come up with theories aimed at explaining different phenomena in the management practice. The process of coming up with theories involves coming up with some form of models which in turn involve the establishment of certain assumption (Foss, 2010). Most management scholars have been heavily influenced by economics, meaning that some of the main assumptions made in economics are also present in management research. Nadkarni and Barr (2008) point out that business schools instil two main sets of paradigms to future managers; paradigms on human interaction and paradigms on decision making. They argue that the set of beliefs inherent in the social model of managers present a set of assumptions and beliefs that may affect how they interact with others and how they interpret their environment. Management theories contain many assumptions and beliefs. Behavioural assumptions are widespread in the management literature. This paper discusses the various behavioural assumptions as presented in different management theories and how they influence managers’ learning. The different behavioural assumptions managers come across during their training impacts their future performance as managers. Employee motivation theories present a lot of assumptions about employees and how to best ensure that they are productive. One such theory is the Vroom's expectancy theory of motivation. The theory places emphasis on the role of managers in motivating employees. The main assumption that the theory makes is that individuals have to make conscious choices and that these choices determine their behaviour (Weihrich, Koontz & Cannice, 2013). Individuals get the motivation to attain a certain goal only if the said goal is worthwhile. According to Vroom, the performance of a worker depends on various factors including their skills, personality, experience, knowledge as well as ability. Additionally, Vroom proposes that motivation, performance and effort are linked in what motivates people. Vroom points out that motivation depends on instrumentality, expectancy and valence Needham and Dransfield (1994). Through analysis of these variables, managers are able to work out what they can use to motivate their employees. Generally, employees need to be motivated in order to work better. This motivation does not only come in forms of rewards, but may also be due to a good job environment, positive relationship between employees and leaders as well as recognizing and acknowledging outstanding performance. As such, employees who believe that more effort results in better performance, that better performance has a higher value outcome and that attaining the value outcome is the main priority, tend to be highly motivated (Boone and Kurtz, 2009). Another set of assumptions common in the management literature is that presented in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory. According to this theory, individuals have a hierarchy of needs that they have to satisfy starting from the bottom to the top. The most basic needs are at the bottom of the hierarchy pyramid and mostly involve physiological substances. Solving one set of needs pushes individuals into a higher set of needs (Boone and Kurtz, 2010). The main assumption that the theory makes is that individuals are motivated by efforts to satisfy their different needs, starting from the basic needs to self-actualization needs (DuBrin, 2010). For managers, the assumptions made in Maslow’s theory imply that they have to satisfy the needs of their employees starting from the most basic ones which may include proper wages and a safe working environment. Apart from that, the assumptions also imply that managers have to create an environment where employees can achieve their fullest potential. Numerous researchers such as Atwater and Carmeli (2009, p. 264-275) and Kee Mun WONG (2011; p. 47-50) have supported the assumptions made in Maslow’s theory by pointing out why it is important to satisfy employee needs. Closely related to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory is Alderfer’s ERG theory. The theory proposes that human needs can be broadly categorised into three groups, namely existence, relatedness and growth (Boone and Kurtz, 2010). Existence needs encompass physiological and material desires while relatedness needs include social and external esteem desires. On the other hand, growth needs have to do with internal growth and self-actualization (Griffin, 2015). The theory assumes that the priority of satisfying these needs varies from one individual to another. Unlike Maslow’s theory, the Alderfer’s ERG theory proposes that satisfying a higher level need does not have to follow the fulfilment of a lower level need. The theory also assumes that failure to satisfy a higher level need leads to an increased desire to satisfy a lower level need (DuBrin, 2010). The assumptions made in this theory views employees as having multiple and simultaneous needs. Focussing on only one need may have little impact on employee motivation. McClelland’s achievement motivation theory also makes important assumptions that may have an impact on managers’ learning and their future role as managers. The theory points out that people acquire certain needs over time and that people’s life experiences also shape these needs. The theory proposes that an individual’s motivation is influenced by three needs, namely achievement motivation, authority/power motivation and affiliation motivation (DuBrin, 2010). Basically, the theory assumes that individuals with varying needs can be motivated in different ways. Individuals with high achievement needs can be motivated by giving them challenging by manageable tasks as well as frequent feedback. For those with high affiliation needs, they should be in a cooperative environment where they will work in teams. On the other hand, those with a high need for power should be allowed the opportunity to lead others. The assumptions presented by McClelland are quite logical since the needs described in the theory can be found to different extends among managers as well as workers (Griffin, 2015). These motivational needs have not only been found to influence the characteristics and behaviour of workers, but also the leadership styles and behaviour of managers (Boone & Kurtz, 2010). The equity theory as proposed by Adam views employees as being motivated by the extent to which their input is being rewarded compared to other employees. The theory assumes that employees always seek to maximize their outcomes. Additionally, the theory assumes that employees come up with systems for equitably as a way of maximizing their collective rewards and that employees become distressed when the relationships at the job place are inequitable. An inequitable relationship prompts workers to try and restore equity (Boone and Kurtz, 2010). The assumptions made in this theory are logical and evident in the real world situations. Employees always compare themselves to others within their organization as well as other employees in competing organizations. Those who feel that the rewards do not reflect their input will try to achieve equity. Employees will try to reduce inequity by reducing their input both directly and cognitively or by leaving the organization to look for greener pastures (DuBrin, 2010). McGregor’s theories X and Y make a number of assumptions regarding the attitude of employees towards their work. According to McGregor, managers have two different sets of assumptions that they hold towards their employees. Theory X assumes a negative attitude towards employee behaviour and motivation while theory Y assumes a positive attitude towards employee behaviour and motivation. Madueke (2010) points out that McGregor is of the opinion that the leader’s attitudes towards their employees and their assumptions about human nature and behaviour can also be used to explain their leadership styles. Many management scholars agree that by placing emphasis on a contrasting set of assumptions, McGregor was able to identify the important role played by such assumptions and values in the management system (Makin and Cox, 2004). According to McGregor (1960), the assumptions of theory X offer managers an easy rationalization of poor organizational performance. On the other hand, theory Y makes assumptions that contradict those of theory X. The first assumption in theory X is that many individuals are lazy and will strive to avoid work. This assumption sees all individuals as being lazy and that it is the manager’s duty to ensure that all employees fit into their roles and complete them. The assumption perceives people as having a negative attitude towards work. Nearly all management scholars agree that every other workplace has one more employees with a negative attitude towards their work and the organization in general. Sager (2008) points out that most employees enter their workplace with a positive attitude, but the presence of few other employees with a negative attitude towards the organization may erode their morale. Gürbüz, Şahin and Köksal (2014) are of the view that the attitude and motivation of individuals towards work depend on numerous factors, including the leadership style, the work environment and conditions as well as well as the rewards. Therefore, it is wrong to assume that all individuals are lazy and will always want to avoid work. Contrary to theory X, theory Y assumes that people are obliged to work since it is a natural activity. As a result, people tend to be creative, energetic and imaginative (Vallabhaneni, 2008). This assumption sees work as the only way through which individuals can ensure that they survive and that nothing good can be achieved without work. The need for survival and achieving greater success is what motivates individuals to be creative and energetic in what they do. Theory X also assumes that individuals are unwilling to take up responsibilities; therefore, have to be threatened and directed. On the contrary, theory Y sees people as being capable of self-control and direction and being willing to take up responsibilities (Vallabhaneni, 2008). Different managers tend to utilize different approaches in managing their employees. Managers utilizing an aristocratic leadership style tend to see their workers as being unable to take up their responsibilities without coercion and punishments. On the other hand, managers whose leadership style is democratic tend to be lenient and often involve employees in the decision-making process which shows that they believe that their employees are responsible. According to Yang and Guy (2010), many organizations around the globe are gradually adopting flattened hierarchies, where workers have to collaborate with each other to accomplish their tasks. As a result, more organizations have formed self-managed work teams. DuBrin (2011) describes self-managed work teams as a group of employees responsible for a segment of or an entire work process. These teams are highly trained, with every member of the team being responsible for the final work (Parker, 2011). The continued popularity of these teams is a clear indicator that most employees are self-directed and capable of being responsible. Schermerhorn (2010, p.38) points out that those managers who hold the assumptions of theory X see their subordinates as being inadequate in terms of ambitions, resistant to change and are generally irresponsible, preferring to be led as opposed to being leaders. McGregor urges managers to abandon the assumptions of theory X in favour of theory Y, arguing that the assumptions of theory X are quite inappropriate. Schermerhorn (2010) argues that an interesting aspect of both sets of assumptions is that managers who hold either of them are usually able to create self-fulfilling prophecies. Since the formulation of the two sets of assumptions, various authors have commented on the two theories and the impact of these assumptions on management. Dyer (2006) points out that the assumptions proposed by McGregor have formed the basis of motivational programs, policies and programs for numerous organizations. Kopelman et al. (2012) argue that McGregor was one of the first management scholars to focus on the role of assumptions in management and that his work has formed a basis of other assumptions by other scholars. Russ (2011) investigates the impact of the assumptions of theory X and Y on participative decision making by managers. They report that managers aligned to theory X tend to have a negative approach towards participative decision making while those aligned with theory Y view participative decision making as an important channel to organizational effectiveness. Schermerhorn (2010) mentions some of the traits of managers who utilize the assumptions of theory X. He states that managers who make use of the theory X assumptions tend to be very directive and supervisory. As a result, they tend to give others very little say in the decision-making process which in turn results in subordinates who are passive, reluctant and dependent. On the other hand, managers who make use of theory Y assumptions tend to be more participative which in turn leads to increased freedom, involvement as well as responsibility among the subordinates (Drucker, 2012). So, what implications do these assumptions have on managers’ learning and their future roles as organizational leaders? Management learning prepares potential managers for their future roles. Through the process of learning, student managers are able to know the different ways through which they can solve different problems and tackle various organizational issues. The process of learning involves going through various theories which present various assumptions about how people behave within the organization (Griffin, 2015). These assumptions play an important role in shaping the leadership styles that the management learners will finally employ once they get into leadership positions. Thomas (2003) is of the view that over the past years, research and writing on management has been expanded. The expanding literature presents different views on the nature and purpose of management. According to Thomas, the diverse management literature also contains different information regarding the significance and meaning of management as well as how the whole process of managing others has to be done. He argues that given the diverse information contained in management literature, managers have to cope up with the diverse way of thinking presented by different writers and scholars. Wong, Musa and Wong (2011) a point out that since scholars are human beings, the perception that one scholar has might be different from that held by another person. They point out that empirical studies make it possible for the underlying reasons behind a given phenomenon or event to be identified and that most of these studies are based on assumptions. Kelemen and Rumens (2008) argue that the assumptions in management literature allow for organizational phenomena to be researchable and knowable. According to Kelemen and Rumens, investigating the nature of the assumptions made by researchers is an effective way through which research practice can be reflexively understood. In the course of their learning, managers have to research one or more topics, most of which depend on studies conducted earlier. As such, management learners have to understand the various management theories and the assumptions that these theories make before applying them in their studies. Kelemen and Rumens are of the view that assumptions made by different scholars make up their research paradigm which may refer to the way the scholars see the world around them and their understanding of what constitutes truth, facts, evidence or science. Steuer (2014) is of the view that assumptions serve the role of convenience and also serve to create connectedness between one phenomenon and another. Steuer also argues that the assumptions held by scholars differ from one study to another. He points out that what might be an assumption in one study might be an explanation in another study and an experiment in another study. Rose, Spinks and Canhoto (2014), also discuss the importance of assumptions in management research. They opine that assumptions form the basis of any subject or phenomena that people wish to investigate. They point out that assumptions made by scholars are basically philosophical positions which can be broadly categorized into ontological and epistemological assumptions. Rose, Spinks and Canhoto (2014) state that the two sets of assumptions combine in different ways. This, in turn, results in alternative philosophical orientations to management research and business. Brief Reflective Account By analysing different management literature, I have been able to learn that managers do make a lot of assumptions about their employees. The assumptions that managers make play a critical role in shaping their relationship with their employees and how the employees perceive the managers and the organization as a whole. This assessment has greatly improved my sense of critical thinking by enabling me to learn the critical role that assumptions play in the management process. Different scholars, including McGregor (1960), highlight the important role that assumptions play in the management of employee. The current assessment made me realize how managerial practices largely depend on generalizations, assumptions and hypothesis which are often implicit and quite unconscious. Apart from that, I have been able to learn the assumptions made by different managers and scholars might be conflicting. As a result, it is important for managers to select those assumptions that best fit the conditions of the workplace and the nature of work different employees engage in. Theory and practice are closely connected, but despite the close connections, many scholars and managers continue to misunderstand and misuse the assumptions. Most of the assumptions I discussed are closely linked to each other, meaning that managers can apply many assumptions when dealing with their employees. The knowledge gained in the first assessment played a very important role in the current assessment. The first assessment formed the basis of this assessment since it was then that the topic on the role of assumptions in the learning and management process was introduced. The improved sense of critical thinking I acquired through analysis of the three articles went a great way in helping me identify the various assumptions as presented by various authors and the implications that these assumptions have on the process of manager learning. Generally, the knowledge gained in the first assessment helped me identify the different management literature that talks about the role of assumptions in the formulation of theories and the whole learning process. Despite some of the terms and ideas being quite difficult to understand, I was able to overcome this obstacle by looking at other articles presenting the same ideas. I believe that my ability to investigate various concepts related to manager’s learning has greatly improved. Additionally, I am more familiar with other managerial terms and vocabulary. The assessment has allowed me to sharpen my critical thinking skills, and I believe that in future, I will be able to handle such assessments with more ease. Conclusion Theorizing involves coming up with some form of models which in turn involves the establishment of certain assumption. Most management scholars have been heavily influenced by economics, meaning that some of the main assumptions made in economics are also present in management research. Assumptions such as economic rewards are the main motivators, that resources available to organizations are homogenous and that an entity and the environment are separate bodies are some of the common ones in management literature. These assumptions have impacted manager’s learning in several ways. Since scholars are human beings, the perception that one individual has might be different from that held by another person. Empirical studies make it possible for the underlying reasons behind a given phenomenon or event to be identified and that most of these studies are based on assumptions. During the learning process, managers come across several theories, each having their set of theories. These assumptions end up shaping their leadership styles and the type of employee behaviour they best prefer (Atwater & Carmeli, 2009, 264-275; Kee Mun WONG, 2011; p. 47-50). References List Atwater, L. and Carmeli, A. (2009). Leader–member exchange, feelings of energy, and involvement in creative work. The Leadership Quarterly, 20(3), pp.264-275. Boone, L., and Kurtz, D. (2010). Contemporary business. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. Chen, C., and Huang, Y. (2010). Creative workforce density, organizational slack, and innovation performance. Journal of Business Research, 63(4), pp.411-417. Drucker, P. 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