Global Transformation of Egypt since 1990 - Literature review Example

Name Tutor Task Date Global Transformation Since 1990 Introduction For centuries, Egypt has been the Arab world’s center of culture, political power and learning. Egypt was incorporated into the Arab World as far back as the time when Islam was founded in the Arabian Peninsula during the 7th century AD. Egypt was among the first targets of the religion, from which it expanded to other parts of northern Africa. It therefore fell under the Arab Caliphates based in Baghdad and Damascus (Shaw 2003 p.9). As from 1517, the country was incorporated into the Ottoman Turkish Empire, lasting until its conquest by France in 1798. When the French were deposed, it was ruled by Mohammed Ali, an Albanian Ottoman troop contingent commander as from 1805. He founded a dynasty that ruled for several generations, ending with his great-great grandson named Farouk I who was deposed during the 1952 revolution (Findlay 1994, p. 39). While providing leadership in the region, Egypt has had an eventful political history which has in turn impacted on its tourism industry. This paper discusses Egypt within the Arab world and the effect of its political developments on tourism. The development of modern urban Cairo started during Ismail’s reign, dating 1863-79. Ismail was very enthusiastic in westernizing the capital. He ensured the building of a European-design city to the old original one’s west. The completion of the Suez Canal occurred in 1869, still during his reign. Egypt is a leader that determines the progress that the entire region makes. It is a large nation of over 80 million people, and this makes it the most populated of all the 22 Arabic- speaking nations in the world. It also hosts the Al Azhar University, the most prominent religious institution in the Islamic world and also the Arab League’s headquarters (Vatikiotis 2008, p.56). In 1882, there was a revolt against Ottoman rule. This was however crushed by British forces and marked the onset of British occupation. Before 1952, there was much competition between three forces in Egyptian politics. One of these was the Wafd, a nationalist political unit which rejected the idea of British influence and King Fuad, a leader installed by the British in the course of the Second World War. As a response to growing nationalism, the British granted Egypt independence in 1922. The period was further marked by the emergence of the communist party in 1925 and the Muslim Brotherhood in 1928. The Muslim Brotherhood later grew into a strong religious and political force. There was however the continuation of British influences in Egypt’s politics (Perry 2004, p. 87). 1952 was a revolution year in Egypt. According to Thompson (2009, p.71): In the Second World War, the British used Egypt as the Allied forces’ regional operational base. There was however a growth in anti-British, nationalistic feelings at the time. On 22-23 July 1952, there was a group of army officers who were opposed to the way the government was being run. These were referred to as the free officers and were led by Lt. Col. Gamal Abdel Nasser. They overthrew the reigning King Farouk, blaming him for the Egyptian military’s dismal performance during the country’s 1948 war against Israel. They declared Egypt as being a republic as from 19 June 1953. Nasser grew to be a highly charismatic leader, not just of Egypt but also of the Arab world. He pursued what he referred to as Arab socialism and oversaw the Egyptian economy’s nationalization. Tignor (2011) explains that as from July 1961, Nasser took up the implementation of Arab socialism as defined by a National Charter. This was characterized by a change from the previous nationalist goals to an emphasis on Egypt being an Arab country founded on Islam. There was the formation and declaration of the Arab Socialist Union (ASU) as the only party for rallying mass support. According to Perry (2004 p. 51) there was also a massive nationalization of businesses, banks, insurance companies and industries. Shipping companies were also taken by government. More companies were forced to sell at least a half of their shares to public institutions. The maximum amount of land to be owned by an individual was lowered by a half and taxation for people earning over £E5, 000 was set at 90%. Minimum wages were raised by far and half of all seats in various boards and parliament were set aside for peasants. Nasser was instrumental in creating the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) for developing countries in 1961 (Thompson 2009, p.71). According to Sayyid-Marsot (2007 p. 44), The Non-Aligned Movement was a grouping of 115 developing countries. These sought to find ways of developing joint policies with regard to international relations. It was notably led by prime ministers Jawarlal Nehru of India, Soekarno of Indonesia and Nasser of Egypt. It worked towards resisting pressures from major powers, the maintenance of independence and opposition to neo-colonialism and colonialism, especially during the Cold War. McGregor (2006, p. 24) observes that when Nasser overthrew the monarchy in 1952, he inspired similar events in other parts of the Arab world. Arab leaders recognized the importance of Egypt. When Mubarak was facing a threat to his rule therefore, the rather authoritarian leaders in Algeria, Jordan, Syria, Yemen and Morocco among other countries scrambled to put reforms into place. When the World Bank and US declined to finance the Aswan High Dam in 1956, Nasser opted to nationalize the Suez Canal Company which was by then privately owned. A crisis developed and was worsened by a growth in tensions between Egypt and Israel with regard to Gaza guerrilla attacks and reprisals by Israel. This was followed by Egypt’s invasion by Britain, Israel and France, a phenomenon that was reversed through political intervention by the USSR, US and the United Nations. Meanwhile, the Muslim Brotherhood was opposed to the growth in secularism after the revolution. It also complained about alleged corruption in the distribution of seized non-Muslim property, and therefore organized street protests. As from June 1953, there were several riots, street clashes and much civil turmoil. In early 1954, the Muslim Brotherhood was declared illegal. Most of the Arab world wanted to revenge the perceived aggression of Israel towards Palestine as from the mid 1960s. Nasser and other Arab nations therefore set out to war with Israel in 1967. Israel however successfully pre-empted the attack in June 1967, dealing a serious blow to the Arab countries (Petry 2008, p. 114). Hershlag (1991) explains that the Israelis virtually finished off Egyptian, Syrian and Jordanian air forces. Israel also moved into the Golan Heights, the West Bank, the Gaza strip and the Sinai Peninsula. Nasser however remained a hero both in Egypt and elsewhere in the Arab world until his death in 1970. Nasser was succeeded by Anwar Sadat, his Vice-President and also a member of the free officers group. Marsot (1996, p.21) explains that in October 1973 he declared a war against Israel. In spite of initial successes, Egypt was defeated. Sadat was instrumental in the signing of Camp David peace accords by Israel and Egypt and Israel in September 1978. These precipitated the signing of a peace treaty in March 1979. In this, Egypt acquired control over the Sinai as from May 1982. Sadat's readiness to break ranks with other Arab states and engaging in peace talks with Israel caused much enmity with a majority of countries in the Arab World. Sadat ushered in more political freedom, in addition to new economic policies. The most significant of these were decontrols which also facilitated private investment. There was greater liberalization and political freedom for Egyptians. Sadat’s friendliness with Israel and western policies was however met with violence by Muslim extremist groups. On 6 October 1981, Sadat was assassinated by Islamic extremists. Hosni Mubarak, the Vice President became president after Sadat. He maintained the country’s commitment to peace processes. Egypt rejoined the Arab League in 1989 and also continued being active in various international meetings in the region, especially relating to the Non-Aligned Movement and United Nations. There was however a notable difference between Mubarak and his predecessors. Unlike them, Mubarak led Egypt in a manner that did not assert its great role within the Arab world. In addition, he was considerably liberal. The press was granted more freedom and Egyptians had something to celebrate in this regard. However, the presidency was very much shielded from any criticism, hence the creation of a presidential dictatorship. Mubarak was also more detached from the masses (Sayyid-Marsot 2007, p. 41). Oweiss (2000, p. 82) explains that as from 1991, Mubarak instituted much economic reforms. However, there was no change in the political climate. Opposition parties continued facing difficulties in challenging the ruling party. The Muslim Brotherhood was maintained as an illegal organization. It was not recognized as a political party as the constitution prohibits political parties that were founded on religion. Its members could not explicitly associate themselves with the organization. The Brotherhood’s members were however elected to local councils and the national Assembly, usually as independents. Egypt was a major player during the Gulf Crisis of 1990-91. Bowker (2010, p. 62) contends that; President Mubarak facilitated the mobilization of an international coalition. He mobilized 35,000 Egyptian troops to liberate Kuwait from Iraq. This was the third biggest contingent in the coalition, after the US and UK. After the war, Egypt was part of the Damascus declaration. Together with the Gulf States and Syria, this treaty was meant to strengthen security in the Gulf. Egypt later continued regularly contributing to UN peacekeeping missions abroad. In 2004, Egypt was instrumental in seeking a remedy to the Darfur crisis in Sudan through military monitors. After the September 11, 2001 attacks on the US also, Egypt has always supported the American war against terrorism. It has also offered support to Iraq’s Governing Council and its subsequent government. According to Bowker (2010, p.4), the Egyptian military is one of the biggest in the region. It is made up of the air force, army, navy and air defense. It is equipped with inventories from France, the US, UK, Italy, China and the former USSR. The USSR equipment is gradually being replaced using the more modern ones from Europe and America, mostly made under licence within Egypt. To strengthen moderation and stability within the Arab world, Egypt has been providing training and military assistance to various Arab states. It is a strong strategic and military partner of the US. The effects of the Arab Spring in Egypt were witnessed during the most recent revolution, in which President Mubarak was overthrown. politicsdaily.com (2011) explains that it started on January 25 2011 and was marked by several riots, violent clashes, rallies marches and labour strikes. These were staged in Alexandria, Cairo and all over Egypt, as a follow up to similar occurrences in Tunisia. According to Tignor (2011 p. ii), Mubarak’s leadership however had its shortcomings. His long period of rule was characterized by the suppression of political opponents. In addition, his economic policies did not really impact on the poor, as a result of which poverty levels escalated. There was also a lot of high-level corruption, with a few people growing immensely rich by looting public funds. The lack of transparency in the political system precipitated the uprising that led to his resignation. Millions of people from different religions and socio-economic backgrounds called for the resignation of President Hosni Mubarak and the ending of police repression and corruption. They also demanded democratic reforms in their political system. Mubarak resigned on February 1. After the exit of Mubarak, the prospects for the Muslim Brotherhood imply both fear and hope. The Brotherhood is known to be responsible for the assassination of former President Sadat. It also has links with radical groups (politicsdaily.com 2011). Having consistently advocated for political reform in the past, the brotherhood is expected to emerge as a promoter of political participation, moderation and stability. At worst however, it may take up a hard line stance in the creation of an Islamic state or even offer logistical or financial support to terrorism. There is the further risk of disregarding the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty, and this could drive the region into armed violence (politicsdaily.com 2011). The brotherhood promised to participate in facilitating peaceful transition. It has engaged in talks during which it has guaranteed not to co-opt or compromise the public’s agenda. It shall not in any way dominate the transition or present its own special agenda. It will not also present a presidential candidate during the September elections (El-Erria 2011). Egyptian Tourism and the Effect of Political Developments As from the early 19th century’s French invasion of Egypt, there was a rapid growth of interest in Egyptology. The fascination that arose created the foundation for the modern character of the country’s tourism industry (Tignor 2011 p.47). Thompson (2009, p.22) observes that Egypt is famed for its all-year warm beaches and Pharaonic antiquities. It is highly reliant on tourism as the country’s main earner of foreign exchange. The sector accounts for more than a tenth of the country’s Gross Domestic Product and one in every eight jobs. According to Farah (2009, p. 6), the modern tourism in Egypt may be traced to the Suez Canal’s opening. The discovery of new tombs further drew interest during the early part of the 20th century, leading to a rapid growth up to the First World War. After it, tourism returned again up to the turmoil of early 1950s when independence was gained. The decline in tourism at this time was not because of only the violence, but also a rather radical transformation in politics. For long, Egypt had been largely under western powers. After the 1952 revolution, the post-independence leaders sought alliances with the USSR. This did not help the sector, as it was mostly comprised of American and western European tourists. Vatikiotis (2008 p. 51) explains that the Industrial revolution in Europe during the 19th century accounted for the western characteristic of Egyptian tourism. This was because it led to a major improvement in transport, and as its beneficiaries returned home and reported on their experiences, more visitors came to witness the marvels of Egypt. During the 50’s and beyond, there were problems and struggles during the period and this reduced tourism. The wars between Egypt and Israel up to the 1970’s were for instance a major factor. Later on however, Egyptians started taking charge of the sector and local tourism helped to support it unlike before (Farah (2009, p. 7). Aziz (1995 p. 91-95) observes that during Sadat’s presidency a lot of resources were committed to infrastructural development for the sector. However, the employment created in this effort tended to benefit urban rather than rural labour-forces. There was also the perception that the funds used in building luxury tourist resorts were for instance diverted from public amenities. These, coupled with the extravagant lifestyles of the tourists among poor Egyptians and also value systems that were considered un-Islamic led to resentment hence terrorism. When President Sadat took power, there was a definite attempt at going back to Western influence. Sadat made peace with Israel and this gained him enemies especially among groups of radical Muslims. In addition, it precipitated several terrorist attacks that were intended to sabotage the Egyptian government and growing western influence. A rise in such incidences eventually resulted in a tourist massacre at Luxor in 1997 (Sayyid-Marsot 2000, p.40). According to Zayed (2011), Egypt has had to deal with a number of tourism scares before. In 1997, there was the killing of 4 Egyptians and 58 tourists by gunmen in the ancient temple near Luxor in southern Egypt. This severely damaged tourism. As from 2004 to 2006 also, there occurred a number of deadly bomb explosions at tourist resorts in the Sinai. However, it was possible to quickly regain tourist bookings. As from 1997, the government recognized radical elements as holding back a highly lucrative economic sector. It therefore rose as one of the greatest advocates against terrorism. All known radicals were either deported or imprisoned. There was also the institution of reforms in education and other sectors that would help in eliminating radicalism from Egypt. The government has been dedicated to keeping tourists and the tourism industry safe (Farah 2009, p. 37). The efforts however suffered a set back with the 2011 uprising Arab Spring. By April 2011, it had been predicted that the tourism industry would be negatively affected by the events. It was crippled by the political turmoil and was projected to have an annual drop of 25% in its revenues for 2011. It will need a period of up to September to recover (Zayed 2011). In conclusion, Egypt has had an eventful history. With each leader, there has been a response, especially the radicals. This has impacted on the country’s stability. Their resentment against policies has created a basis for terrorism and this has greatly affected tourism. The 2011 revolution is the latest limiting factor to the sector. However, according to Zayed (2011), the instability which led to the scaring off of tourists has ended. Tourists are coming back and most of the advisories that had been issued have been reversed. Visitor numbers however remain very low. The authorities however predict a recovery of the sector by September. The country has set up an advertising campaign globally, calling for the revision of any travel bans that may be remaining. In addition, there is the provision of incentives aimed at cutting down the cost of charter flights for tourists to Egypt. While the recovery is anticipated to be highly challenging and time consuming, security has been regained and Egyptians are ready to receive tourists. References Aziz, H., 1995, Understanding Attacks on Tourists in Egypt, Tourism Management, Vol. 16 (2): pp. 91-95 Bowker, R., 2010, Egypt and the Politics of Change in the Arab Middle East, Elgar Publishers, Cheltenham El-Erria, E., 2011, What the Muslim Brothers Want, Retrieved on 21 June 2011 from http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/10/opinion/10erian.html?_r=1 Farah, N., 2009, Egypt's Political Economy: Power Relations in Development, American University in Cairo Press, Cairo Findlay, A., 1994, The Arab World, Routledge, London Hershlag, Z., 1991, Introduction to the Modern Economic History of the Middle- East, Brill Publishers, Leiden Marsot, A., 1996, A Short History of Modern Egypt, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge McGregor, A., 2006, A Military History of Modern Egypt: from the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War, Praeger Security International, Westport Oweiss, I, 2000, The Political Economy of Contemporary Egypt, University of California, Berkeley Perry, G., 2004, The History of Egypt, Greenwood Publishing, Westport Petry, C., 2008, The Cambridge History of Egypt. Vol. 1, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge politicsdaily.com, 2011, After Egypt's Mubarak: The Muslim Brotherhood, Retrieved on 21 June 2011 from http://www.politicsdaily.com/2011/02/01/after-egypts-mubarak-the-muslim-brotherhood/ Sayyid-Marsot, A, 2007, A History of Egypt: from the Arab Conquest to the Present, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Shaw, I., 2003, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press, Oxford Thompson, J., 2009, A History of Egypt: From Earliest Times to the Present, Sage Books, London Tignor, R., 2011, Egypt: A Short History, Princeton University Press, New Jersey Vatikiotis, P., 2008, The History of Modern Egypt: From Muhammad Ali to Mubarak, Kluwer Academic, Boston Zayed, D., 2011, Egypt’s Unrest Blights 2011 Tourism Revenue, Retrieved on 21 June 2011 from http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/04/11/uk-egypt-tourism-idUKLNE73A03720110411 Read More